A Survey of Maithili Literature- Radhakrishna Chaudhary
Preface
The survey was initially prepared for a particular occasion
under the heading “History of Maithili Literature”, sponsored by
the Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. The man-made destiny willed
otherwise and the mechanism, crowned with utter selfishness and
sectarianism, did not allow the original scheme to materialise. The
original idea was, therefore, changed and the present survey is a
modified, revised and uptodate account of the Maithili literature in
all its ramifications. I wish Maithili should have a clean slate to
start, if it has to prosper in the company of other sister languages of
the country. The survey, in its present form, is intended for the
common readers. It is an attempt to outline the essence of Maithili.
There is no attempt to prove or disprove but rather to present in
outline a graduated interpretation of the course of development. In
a sense, it is a synthesis of the ideas permeating underneath Maihili
language and liteature.
A connected account of all the epochs of Maithili literature,
from the earliest times to the present day, has been given in this
short survey. Hitherto there is only one book in English language
on the History of Maithili literature and that, too, was published,
about thirty years back. The edition, now to be brought out by the
Sahitya Akademi, is being written by the same author and naturally
the Sahitya Akademi version of history will be nothing but old
wine in new bottle.
The present survey has been prepared in a purely historical
perspective. Though much remains to be done in the field, the present
work is just an attempt to draw the attention of the specialists in
their respective branches to fill up the gap still awaiting further
enquiry and proper research. I have condensed many facts in order
to render the volume more fitted for popular reading. It also contains
uncritical list of recent publications in the language to date. I have
endeavoured to make it as simple, clear and readable as far as
possible and have tried to be accurate and uptodate. Writing for
non-specialised readers is like walking on tight rope. One is always
afraid of falling into pedantism or triviality. It is for the readers to
judge whether I have succeeded in keeping my balance all the way
or not.
Marthili is a living language and has a glorious history of its
own. Its history is the history of the growth of one of the earliest
important languges of northeastern India and which influenced in
one way or the other, all the languages of eastern India. The book is
likely to interest all the lovers of our languages and if my readers
feel that this humble attempt of mine has been worth while I shall
deem my labour amply rewarded.
I must express my sincere sense of gratitude to Prof. Upendra
Nath Mallik, M. A. (Cal.), of the Department of English, T. N. B.
College, Bhagalpur University, for his ungrudging help and
coopertion. I have no words to thank Shri Gopiraman Choudhary,
Research Fellow, Bihar Research Society, Patna, not only for his
help and cooperation in seeing the book through the Press but also
for other help. Without his active cooperation at the printing level
the work would not have seen the light of the day so early. My
sincere thanks are due to Dr. B. K. Verma Manipadma, Pandit
Rajeshwar Jha of the Bihar Research Society, and to my wife and
daughter, who shared my worldly anxieties while the work was in
progress. I wish to thank all those who gave me their encouragement
and help. I crave the indulgence of my readers for all types of
shortcomings in this humble work. The very thought that this work
will be of some help to all types of readers, will render them more
tolerant to its occasional heaviness.
RADHAKRISHNA CHAUDHARY-Bhagalpur-August 15, 1976
Preface
Contents
1. Introductory
2. Evolution of the Language and Script
3. Forms of Early Maithili Poetry
4. Triumph of Maithili Speech
5. Age of Efflorescence
6. The Mongrel Language
7. Crossing the Frontier
8. Heritage without Glamour a Study in Medieval
Maithili Poetry
9. A Comfort to the Grieved
10. Era of Decadent Documentary Prose
11. Throbbing Human Heart
12. The New Awakening
13. The Golden Trio
14. The Lotus Blossoms
15. The New Dimensions
Appendix-I
Appendix II
Abbreviations
ABORS : Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute.
JBORS : Journal of the Bihar & Orissa Research Socieiy,
JBRS : Journal of the Bihar Research Society.
MBH : Mahabharat.
MSS : Manuscript.
MM : Mahamahopadhyay.
NIA : New Indian Antiquary.
PPM : Prakritpainglam.
RT : Ragatarangini.
VR : Varnanaratnakara.
CHAPTER—I
Introductory
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND
Mithila is bounded on the north by the Himalayas, and on the south,
west and east by the Ganges, Gandaka and the Kaushiki respectively. It
comprises the districts of Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Saharsa,
Purnea, North Monghyr and parts of the Terai region in Nepal. It forms
the north-eastern part of the State of Bihar. The Mithilamahatmya, describes
the boundary of Mithila in the following manner; “Between the
Himalayas and he Ganges, intercepted by fifteen rivers, lies the most
holy land known as Tirabhukti; beginning from the Kosi and running
up to the Gandaki, its length is declared to be twenty-four yojanas, that
is, 192 miles; beginning from the Ganges and extending up to the
Himalayan forests, its breadth is sixteen yojanas, that is, 128 miles. There
is situated the city of Mithila.” The name ‘Tirabhukti’ appears in the
records of the Gupta period (circa 4th centuary A. D.). Tirabhukti is
modern Tirhut.
The antiquity of Mithila is proved beyond any shadow of doubt.
The story of the Aryan Colonisation of Mithila is narrated in the
Shatapatha Brahmana and the name Mithila or Videha is derived from
Videgha Mathava. The word Mithila was derived from “Manth” (to
churn) by the author of the Unadisutra. According to the Matsyapfurana,
Mithila was also the name of a Sage. Mithi was one of the rulers who is
said to have carried out Ashvamedha Yajna and thereby rendered it holy.
Mithila was originally the name of the capital of the land, which was
known as Videha. Mithila and Videha ultimately came to be synonymous.
Mithila figures prominently in the Vedic and epic sources.
Mithila is associated with the name of Janaka Videha and stands
apart pre-eminently as the land given to intellectual pursuits and
consequently to speculations about the spiritual well-being of man.
Janaka gave impetus to philosophical discussions at his court and that
formed the kernel round which the Indian culture had grown, developed
and ultimately perfected in later years. “The path of duty can be known
from the usages of Mithila”— a passage attributed to Yajnavalkya—is
later echoed by Vidyapati in his Purushapariksha, where he says—”the
people of Tirabhukti are by nature proud of their merits”. It was here in
Mithila that Janaka ruled, Yajnavalkya legislated and Gautama
meditated.
Mithila was also associated with the leaders of Jainism and
Buddhism. We have no definite information about the ancient ruling
dynasties after the Janaka dynasty. For sometime it formed a part of the
republic of Vaishali and during the Gupta period, it formed a part of the
Gupta empire. It appears that it also formed a part of the empire of
Harshavardhana. The period following his death is one of political
confusion and the real history of Mithila, as an independent unit, begins
in 1097 A. D. when the adventurers of the South, the Karnatas, ushered
in a new era of splendid glory and achievements. It was under them that
Mithila once again became the centre of philosophy, law and literature.
The Karnatas were replaced by the Oinwaras in about 1325 A.D., and
under that dynasty, Mithila made further progress in literature and
philosophy, Vidyapati flourished under the Oinwaras. The Oinwaras
were replaced by the Khandawalas in about 1556 A. D.
The contribution of Mithila to the development of a synthetic Indian
culture has been immense. Yajnavalkya developed the Madhyanandini
branch of Yajurveda (universally know as Shukla and accepted by the
whole of northern India)’. The Yajnavalkya smriti came to be duly
recognised and formed the bedrock of the Mithila School of Hindu Law.
The contribution of Mithila to Smriti is equally important. Mithila has
produced illustrious writers and thinkers and India is justly proud of
Mithila’s contribution to Nyaya. It was first systematised by Gautama
and in the twelfth century A.D., Gangesha gave it a new orientation. In
the realm, of philosophy, specially Nyaya and Mimamsa, Udyotakara,
Mandana, Prabhakara, Vachaspati. Parthasarthi, Udayanacharya,
Murari, Gangesha, Pakshadhara and Shamkara made their valuable
contributions, while in the realm of Smriti, Shrikara, Halayudha,
Bhavadeva, Shridhara, Aniruddha, Chandeshwara, Ganeshwara,
Vachaspati, Vidyapati and others are notable figures. Scholars from
different parts of India used to come here for training and proficiency in
Neo-Logic or Navya-Nyaya. It was with the permission of his teachers
of Mithila that the Bengali scholar Raghunath Shiromani started his
famous Navya-Nyaya centre at Nadia. Mithila greatly influenced Bengal
in philosophy and poetry. The medieval period of Mithila’s history has
rightly been described as its golden age.
The literary achievements of Mithila have been second to none.
Padmanabha Datta started a new School of Grammar known as
‘Supadmavyakarana’. Bhanudatta, author of Rasamanjari, wrote on
Rhetorics and Erotics, while Jotirishwara had already made a name by
writing Panchasayaka and Rangashekhara. Prithvidhara Acharya wrote a
commentary on Mrichchakatika, Bhavadeva on Naishadhacharitam and
Govinda Thakur composed Kavyapradipa. Shridharadas brought out a
magnificent anthology, known as ‘saduktikarnamrita. In the field of lexicon,
Shrikara Acharya’s commentary on the Amarakosha is a remarkable
achievement of Sanskrit literature.
In the realm of music, Mithila made notable contribution as is evident
from the Varnanartnakara of Jyotirishwar. Since the days of Nanyadeva,
Mithila has been an important centre of music. Nanyadeva, is credited
with having developed popular ragas and is believed to have been the
inspirer of the Mithila school of Music which assumed a new form after
being influenced by Jayadeva. Harisimhadeva was himself a great patron
of music. The Varnanaratnakara gives a detailed account of music, dance,
drama and other allied activities of the period. Books on music were
written and compiled and Srihastamuktavali of Shubhankara Thakur is
considered to be an important contribution in this respect. Lochana’s
Ragatarangini mentions a number of Ragas and Raginis associated with
the Mithila school of music.
Shiva is the most popular deity of Mithila. Vidyapati, who wrote
Shaivasarvasvasara, also composed Nacharis and Mahesa vanis in honour
of Shiva. The Ain-i-Akbari describes Nachari as one of the peculiarities
of Tirhut. The religious impact on Maithili literature is not negligible.
Shiva, Shakti and Vishnu have been very popular deities and Mithila
has been recognised as one of the important centres of the Tantric cult.
The life of the people of Mithila has been under the wholesome influence
of Tantrism and that can be gleaned even through the popular folk art,
the Aripana. The first verse that is taught to a beginner is indicative of
the influence of Shakti and even the script, Mithilakshara, is attributed
to Tantric Yantra. No aspect of human life is free from the deep impact
of religion and it is, therefore, natural that the language should have
been influenced by such forces.
At a time when Maithili was born, Mithila had a long literary
tradition. Sanskrit was the main vehicle of expression and the chief source
of learning. Even after the Muslim conquest, when Sanskrit ceased to be
a living language in a greater part of India, Mithila continued to cultivate
it with all earnestness. The famous writers of Maithili in the early period
were equally great in Sanskrit, now the language of a very small coterie.
That is why Mathili is, to a great extent, indebted to Sanskrit even in
modes, ideas, figures and themes. Sanskrit provided Maithili with a great
intellectual and spiritual background. As a repository of knowledge and
culture, Sanskrit reigned supreme as medium of religious and secular
culture. Priests, philosophers and the Nibandhakaras composed their
works in Sanskrit and they were patronised by the royalty and the
aristocracy. As the Devabhasha (the language of the Gods), it was held
in high esteem since it was the embodiment of the Indian tradition.
Writing in Sanskrit was considered to be a qualification and a sign of
greatness and hence persons, even well-versed in languages, chose to
write in Sanskrit. The process of writing in peoples’ language was started
by the Jainas and the Buddhists who took to Prakrit arid Pali respectively.
No other modern Indian language has followed the lines of Sanskrit so
closely as Maithili. The greatest Maithili treatise on Grammer, by
Mahavaiyakarana, Dinabandhu Jha, has been written in the Sutra form
and has a long Dhatupatha attached to it in the Paninian manner. Even
in the Maithili dramas we frequently come across three languages viz.
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Maithili. The earliest drama Parijataharana by
Umapati is in all the three languages mentioned above. Mahakavyas,
Khandakavyas and Champus are still very popular in Maithili. Even the
Vratakathas are based on the epics and the Puranas.
Sanskrit however also proved a hindrance to the growth of Maithili.
The reason that made Sir Thomas More in England write his Utopia in
Latin in preference to English or Raghunath Shiromani write his
Chintamani Didhiti in Sanskrit in preference to Bengali, has similar
parallels in Mithila, where, in spite of the growth of Maithili, scholars
preferred to wrtite in Sanskrit. Maithili had fairly established itself by
then. The scholars stuck to Sanskrit for the natural desire they had to
belong to the great tradition Sanskrit embodied. A large mass did not
understand Sanskrit but even that was adopted by the scholars who
considered Maithili as the Apabhramsa or the fallen language and,
therefore, fit only to embody light literature. No scholarly work was,
therefore, written in Maithili in the past.
But Maithili literature found room to grow in the gap left by Sanskrit,
after Sanskrit had become difficult for the common man. The mass
pressure from below was responsible for the growth of all provincial
languages in spite of the disfavour shown by the orthodox Panditas.
The sources of livelihood were drying up in the orthodox fold and the
caste had often to be sacrificed to economic necessity. After the Muslim
conquest, the old royalty and aristocracy, the traditional patrons of
conservative faith, had either become extinct or impoverished and they
were not in a position to stand in opposition to the rising Muslim power.
The impact on language was inevitable as the new masters took to the
recognition of the Laukikabhasha. Indigenous cults grew up and helped
the growth of peoples’ languages which served as the vehicles of the
larger section of the populace. The basic unity of the village life was
never disturbed in India before the rise of the Britishers. The lower orders
had a natural tendency towards unity and uniformity of their communal
life. Such unity arose, out of racial oneness, economic interest and
communal life of the village. Various popular cults had their beginnings
in the middle ages and these factors also helped the growth of Maithili.
The village gods and goddesses like Salhesha, Bihula etc., popular ballads
like Lorik and a number of cults associated with the local deities and
horoes played a very prominent part in integrating the common people
at large and also in developing the peoples’ language. The patricians’
favour to Sanskrit could not stand in the way of the development of the
Laukikabhasha (peoples’ language).
II
INTRODUCING THE LANGUAGE
There has been an unbroken continuity of Maithili language and
literature since its inception in the early medieval period. It is one of the
oldest languages of India and its influence on the contemporary
languages is immense. The regular contact between Mithila, Nepal,
Assam, Bengal and Orissa in the middle age was responsible for the
propagation of this language in different parts and it was natural that
there should be a mingling of thought and ideas through the medium of
a common vehicle, popularly known as ‘Brajabuli’ in course of time. The
impact of this language was so great that even a poet of the eminence of
Rabindranath Tagore was attracted to Mithila compose Bhanusimha
Thakurer Padavali in Maithili was the main vehicle of the common culture
of the whole of eastern India in those days. In spite of its affinity to sister
languages of the Indo-Aryan languages group, however, it stands aloof
from all “in following very scrupulously the complex rules regarding the
honorific and non-honorific sense as well and about the use of the appropriate
personal terminations indicative of the person of both the subject and the object.”
Many forms in other cognate languages which are otherwise obscure
are easily explained when they are referred to some available forms of
old and modern Maithili.
Maithili seems to have emerged in the neighbourhood of tentheleventh
century A.D. and has passed through successive stages of
development known as old, middle and modern (Maithili). The form
of old Maithili may be traced to the Charya songs and to
Avahatta compositions, which continued up to the days of
Vidyapati. There is scope for dialectical variations in those songs and
compositions and the local forms and idioms are not few and far between.
Borrowing from Sanskrit and other contemporary languages including
Arabic and Persian, continued. The old Maithili covers the period from 900
to 1350
A.D., the Middle Maithili from 1350 to 1830 A.D., and the modern Maithili
from 1830 onwards. Middle Maithili, a pan-Maithili literary language, was
the most developed form of literary languages. In the middle ages, contact
with western and eastern provinces grew and there came into use a large
number of forms and words from sister languages. Modern Maithili no
longer plays a subservient role to Sanskrit and this is an indication of
the vitality it has acquired in modern times. Modern Maithili has many
idioms, turns and twists of expression which have been undoubtedly
introduced by the thought pattern of the English language. Modern
Maithili has two distinct literary styles, viz. Shishtabhasha (sadhu-bhasha)
(elegant language) and Chalitabhasha (current language).
The affinity of Maithili and Bengali is so very strong that the works
in Maithili can easily be claimed to be in Bengali. Maithili agrees with
Assamese, Bengali and Oriya in the use of pronouns onouns and their
scripts are very much alike. The intimate contact between Mithila and
Bengal led to greater intercourse both culturally and linguistically and
distinction between the two languages in the early period was hardly
perceptible. Similarly Mithila and Assam were culturally bound into close
ties and that led to the closer linguistic affinities between the two. Maithili
exercised considerable influence on the Assamese. Sankaradeva (c. 1449-
1586) employed Maithiliin his plays. Maithili and Oriya, specially in
respect of phonology, have got some points of similarity. It agrees with
Oriya in stressing long vowels. Oriya does not possess the short vowels
of Maithili.
The literary tradition of Mithila has been very old and the people
of Mithila appear to have been well-versed in prosody. The joining
of metre with melodies (Ragas and Raginis) is found as early as the
eleventh-twelfth century A.D. in Nanyadeva’s (c.1097-1147 A.D.)
Saraswatihridyalankarahara and in Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda. Lochana’s song
metres are regulated by definite Ragas and Talas. The existence of a large
number of commentaries on Prakritapaingalam, written through the
centuries in Mithila by various commentators, is indicative of the poetic
talents and interest in prosody. K. P. Jayaswal has rightly observed,
“Prakrit prosody was a favourite study in Mithila. This is evidenced by
the several manuscripts of the Prakritapaingala and the commentaries
thereon. It has exercised the greatest influence on poetry in Mithila and
other northern vernaculars. It deals with Doha, Totaka, Chappaiya,
Kundaliya, Malini and other metres. There is a vast variety of vernacular
metres which are now not in use.... The Srutabodha, Chhandamanjari and
Vrittaratnakara were popular works of prosody....
Similarly we find Alamkara and Kavyashastra works of Maithil authors
from the thirteen-fourteenth century to the sixteenth becoming standard
works in Mithila to the exclusion of the text books from other parts of
India. There is thus a special Maithil school of poetics and a clear influence
of the vernacular composition on it is evident from the fourteenth century
A.D. onwards. (Catalogue of Mithila Manuscripts, II; Introduction).
The early and middle Maithili prosody is based on the Prakrit and
Apabhramsa metres. In the Prakrit and Apabhramsa metres, matra (the
metrical moments) is a more important factor where as Sanskrit, Varna
(or the letter) plays an important part. Lochana has discussed the song
metres of Mithila. What needs emphasis here is this that the metre formed
an important basis for distinguishing the Desi songs. In the song metres,
poets are obliged to follow the ragas and the raginis to which our attention
is drawn by Lochana, who has given a list of ninety six ragas, then
prevalent in Mithila. Lochana’s enunciation of the rules of matras are
like those mentioned in the Prakrit and Apabhramsa prosody. The ‘Dhruva’
is supposed to sum up or introduce the song. It occurs in the beginning
and is sung after a Pada. Umapati, Vidyapati, Govindadasa and a host of
other poets follow the metres enumerated in Lochana’s Ragatarangini. In
our times, Chanda Jha revived those metres. Two classes of metres have
been adopted by modern Maithili writers, viz.
(i) Matrika metres, represented by the Krishnajanma of Manabodha
and
(ii) Varnavrittaka metres have given rise to free verse, blank verse
etc. as a result of which the poetic craftsmanship of Maithili has
been enriched.
All forms of literature are represented in Maithili. In the field of
poetry, Maithili is rich in epics (Mahakavyas) of which there are three
different classes, viz.
A. (i) Translations or the adaptations of the original, for example,
Achyutanand Datta’s Mahabharat and Raghuvansa and Gauri
Shankar Jha’s Meghanadabadha, based on the adaptation of
Michael Madhusudan Datta.
(ii) Independent works following the convention of Sanskrit
epics, viz. Badrinath Jha’s Ekavaliparinaya; Raghunandan
Das’s Subhadraharana, Tantranath Jha’s Kichakabadha.
(iii) Having the characteristics of epics, e. g. Manabodha’s
Krishnajanma, Chanda Jha’s Ramayana, Laldasa’s Ramayana.
B. Like the Mahakavyas, the Khandakavyas are equally popular in
Maithili. Here also translations and adaptations are seen besides
the original ones. Translations and adaptations of Meghaduta,
Ritusamhara, Bhartriharinivedakavya, Virahini-Vajrangana and
various others are found. Some of the notable original products
in the field of Khandakavya are Gangalahari and Ganeshakhanda
by Laldasa, Gajagrahoddhar by Gunawantalal Das,Virabalaka by
Raghunadnan Das, Satibibhuti by Riddhinath Jha and
Naradavivaha by Anupa Mishra.
C. A peculiar type of Sanskrit Kavya, known as Vatahvana Kavya,
has been very popular in Maithili. It is supposed to induce the
wind to blow at particularly hot hours. Both Chanda Jha and
Bhana Jha have followed this.
D. Virudavalis have been composed by Laldasa and Riddhinath Jha.
E. Kobargita has been composed by one of the master artists named
Kashikant Mishra ‘Madhup’.
The Maithili Mahakavyas can safely be compared with the Mahakavyas
of any other language. Though Sanskrit poetic styles are followed in
compositions like Manabodha’s Krishnajanma Chanda Jha’s or, Laldasa’s
Ramayana, we find that they do not strictly adhere to the rules of a
Mahakavya. There are, of course, all the characteristics in their works but
not on the pattern of Sanskrit. Khandakavyaa are generally long narratives
of mythological and legendary heroes and they sometimes include longer
poems. Taken together the Mahakavyas and the Khandakavyas constitute
the superior class of poetry while others are treated as inferiors. An
important class of Khandakavya in Maithili is Sammara (Svayamvara)
dealing with the course of events leading to the marriage of religious
heroes.
The most important and common type of poetry in Maithili is Tirhuti.
It represents the most popular and successful indigenous lyrical
expression of Tirhut and is the richest of all classes of Maithili songs. All
aspects of love affairs are unfolded therein. They sing of separation as
well as of union. The Tirhuti has following classifications.
(i) Batagamni—It portrays the nayika (heroine) in abhisara, that is,
when she goes to meet her lover. It is sung out in a peculiar
melody of which Vidyapati is the most successful writer.
(ii) Goalari—It depicts the sports and youthful pranks of Krishna in
the company of the Gopis of which Nandipati is the most
successful writer.
(iii) Rasa—It deals with Krishna’s sportive Lilas with Gopis. The most
important writer on Rasa in Maithili is Sahebramdas. The
influence of Brajbhasha is perceptible in his writings.
(iv) Mana—It represents a sort of dramatic lyric depicting the
annoyance of the beloved ( strimana ) and the request of the lovers
to mend matters and vice-versa ( purushmana ). Umapati is the
best writer of Mana.
Other important forms of Maithili poetry are represented by
Samadauni, Lagni, Chaitabara, Malara, Yoga, Uchiti, Sohara, Choumasa and
devotional songs like Nachari, Maheshvani, Gosaunikagita and Vishnupada.
(i) Samadauni: On the occasion of the Navaratri, it is sung to bid
adieu to Goddess Durga. It is sung to bid farewell to one’s
daughter when she is going to her husband’s house after
marriage,
All important functions end with the singing of this song,
popularly known as Bidai song. Gananath Jha and Vindhyanath
Jha have made important contributions in this field.
(ii) Lagni: It is sung by village women folk in the early hours of
morning while grinding grains. The classical type of Lagni
embodies four to five stanzas, Gananath Jha has used it as a
medium of fine poetry.
(iii) Chaitabara ; It represents a class of folk poetry and conveys
emotions of love in the month of Chaitra ( March-April ). It is
also known as Chaiti.
(iv) Malara : It is a seasonal song, sung generally in the dry and rainy
seasons, having a distinct Raga.
(v) Yoga : It is sung to bind the bridegroom and the bride, even loverbeloved,
by divine incantations.
(vi) Uchiti : It is sung to convey the courtesy of the host to the
distinguished visitor. The Yoga and Uchiti are the two peculiar
classes of Maithili songs. These two songs have both literary and
folk types. The Yoga goes back to the days of Vidyapati.
Sohara, Barahmasa and Choumasa are the familiar types of all
vernacular poetry and are found in almost all the languages of Bihar.
Sohara represents the state of separation during the course of twelve
months; Choumasa- during the course of four months. These two classes
have both literary and folk types. In Mithila, the ordinary people have
to eke out their livelihood with great difficulty and as such long
separation from the near and dear ones is a common feature. These songs
are the products of such separation and various poets, now unknown,
composed or contributed to the development of these songs.
Nachari : It indicates songs representing direct prayer to Shiva.
Maheshvani is a song about Shiva. Nachari and Maheshvani are often
confused and kept in common parlance but the difference between the
two is real and marked. Nachari refers to the ecstatic dance of Shiva
whereas Maheshvani is sung in praise of Shiva and is addressed to Manain
(Menka, mother of Gouri). It represents the life of Shiva and more
specially his marriage. Vidyapati, Lalkavi, Kanharamdas, Chanda Jha
and others have composed some of the best Nacharis and Maheshvanis.
The Gosaunikagita is sung in praise of Shakti and the people have been
composing such songs since the days of Vidyapati.
The Maithili folk literature is equally important from the literary
point of view. The chief characteristics of Maithili folk literature are
simplicity, freshness and the charm of its genre. At rare moments of
intuitive experience, it is at its best and is able to have direct vision into
the life of things. The story of the married life of Shiva, the love episodes
of Krishna, the story of Bihula, Puranic legends and Gods, other romantic
love stories of a like nature, riddle poetry, didactive and educative lore
form the basis of folk literature in Mithila. Verses dispensing with the
practical wisdom are found in Dakavachanamrita. Jyotirishwar is well
known for his erotic composition. Maithili folk literature has long
romantic tales in verse or in popular-ballads. Lorika, Bihula, Salhesa,
Dinabhadri, Satikumari, Naika-Banjara and many others are some of the
finest specimens of Maithili folk literature. A full and critical estimate of
the Maithili folk lore is yet a desideratum.
It is in the field of lyrics that Maithili has made the most notable
contribution in the history of modern Indo-Aryan literature. Most lyrics
are meant to be sung. The tradition of lyric was set by the early
Charyapadas and elaborated and perfected by Jayadeva and Umapati.
The lyrics suited to mood and emotion with wide and unlimited range.
The chief sources of inspiration are the events and experiences of
everyday life. Needless to say that Sanskrit poetics and erotic conventions
provide eternal background to its colour and imagery. Maithili lyrics
are mainly distinguished by their melodies. Bhanita is the most common
feature of the Maithili lyric and some of the Bhanitas contain the name of
the patron whom the poet wishes to oblige or compliment. Dr. Sukumar
Sen says— “The insertion of the poet’s name appears to have been
practised in the old and medieval periods throughout the length and
breadth of upper India. It seems to have been a development of the
practice of the earlier Sanskrit poets to insert in the poem or stanza the
name of the metre in which it is written” (History of Brajabuli Literature).
Coming into contact with the main trends of English literature and the
English lyrical forms, sonnets, odes and literary ballads, Maithili writers
began to use them in their own language. Blank verse came to be
recognised as one of the forms of poetry and Muktakakavya has acquired
a great popularity and prominence in modern times. Sitaram Jha may be
regarded as the pioneer of this school and a host of modern writers have
followed him.
The tradition of prose in Maithili is the earliest in the whole of eastern
Indian languages and its best example is found in the Varnanaratnakara
of Jyotirishwar. His influence is seen on the writings of the later authors
of Nepal and Bengal. It is regrettable that the tradition of finished prose
could not be carried on longer. In the medieval period, there are two
types of prose—dramatic and documentary. There is a lot of difference
between the old and the new Maithili prose. The modern prose is marked
by new tendencies of nationalism, democracy, socialism and other
problems of modern life. The prose writers of today are able to take a
synthetic view of life and their concept of the country’s problems is wellmarked
and defined. The documentary prose of the middle period,
though often verbose and beyond the comprehension of common mass,
lacked aesthetic qualities and was not of a very high order. The middle
Maithili was dominated mainly by the lyrics and the prose, in modern
sense of the term, is really a modern creation.
In the field of drama, Maithili’s contribution is unique. It influenced
the dramatic tradition of Assam, Bengal and Nepal, for a considerable
period. Sanskrit and Prakrit dominated the scene of Maithili drama. In
most of the earlier dramas, speeches are in Sanskrit and Prakrit and
Maithili or Sanskrit verses intersperse the play. Sometimes they are
translated into Maithili or the songs are purely in Maithili. These songs
sometime contain the translation of the meaning of the preceding Sanskrit
verses. We have such an example in Umapati’s Parijataharana. The above
characteristics represent the regular Maithili drama. “Irregular” Maithili
dramas contain Maithili songs and verses alone in the body of the play
and this type is represented by Ratnapani’s Ushaharana. The irregular
Maithili dramas of Assam differed much from the regular Maithili drama
in its use of prose and it made a definite departure from the division of
Rupakas of the Sanskrit dramaturgy. Modern Maithili drama is having a
new path altogether and the influence of English is clearly perceptible
here. In Nepal, the Maithili drama had its influence over the form and
stage with profuse Maithili songs. The Kirtaniya drama of Maithili is a
class by itself.
III
PERIODS OF MAITHILI LITERATURE
Broadly speaking, we may divide the entire Maithili literature into
three main periods :
(i) Early Maithili Literature (C. 900-1350 A.D.)
This period marks the development of the language, its earlier stage
of development, growth of literary tradition in the from of ballads, songs,
Dohas ete. The actual literary phase begins from the first quarter of the
fourteenth century A. D. when we come across the writings of
Jyotirishwar, Umapati, Shankaradatta (a Karna Kayastha) and they are
immediately followed by a host of writers. During this period, Maithili
dominated the literary scene of the whole of eastern India and its
extensive use over a vast region marks the replacement of the
Apabhramsa by the vernacular. The period saw the growth and
development of a variety of literary styles both in prose and poetry and
is marked by the sweet lyrics of Umapati and the devotional song of
Shankaradatta.
(ii) Middle Maithili Literature (C. 1350-1830 A.D.)
The period marked the flowering of the language into perfect literary
forms and styles and is dominated by such stalwarts as Vidyapati,
Govindadas, Vishnupuri, Kamsanarayan, Mahesh Thakur, Karn
Jayanand, Kanharamadas, Nandipati, Lalkavi, Manabodha,
Sahebramadas, Buddhilal, Ratnapani, and a host of others. The period
also witnessed the development of Maithili drama and the expansion of
Maithili outside the frontiers of Tirhut. The language became more
refined in its own homeland and it acquired a prominent place in its
areas of adoption. In Assam and Bengal, Maithili songs and dramas
influenced the thought process and were twisted to suit their own literary
forms. In Mithila and Nepal, Maithili maintained its purity throughout
the whole period. The period witnessed the growth and development of
Brajabuli literature where Maithili predominates both in texture and
form.
(iii) Modern Maithili Literature (from 1830 to date)
The change brought about in the cultural setup by the establishment
of the British Rule in India marked the beginning of a new era in the
history of modern Maithili literature. The modern period has assumed a
great importance in all forms of development. The modern period may
be said to have begun with Harshanath. Chand Jha, Laldas,
Raghunandandas and others came forward with deeper insight into the
tangled web of literary forms and styles. Literary prose is the most
important achievement of this period. In recent years, all literary
techniques, obtaining in the contemporary literatures of the country, have
been successfully employed by the Maithili writers. The lack of
recognition so far retarded its growth to a great extent.
IV
THE MAIN DIALECTICAL VARIATIONS OF MODERN MAITHILI
At present, there are the following main noticeable dialectical
variations of Maithili. According to Grierson, pure Maithili is spoken in
the north of Darbhanga and Saharsa and in the western part of Purnea.
It is also spoken with some amount of purity in South Darbhanga,
northern portion of Monghyr and western portion of Saharsa. Standard
Maithili with its greatest purity and without any corruption is yet spoken
in northern Madbubani. Southern standard is spoken in south
Darbhanga, north Monghyr and portions of Saharsa. We get eastern
standard Maithili in Purnea where in the extreme eastern portion it is
injected with Bengali. The standard Western Maithili is spoken in the
districts of Muzaffarpur and north-eastern part of Champaran. On the
western side, it is infected with Bhojapuri, The mussalmans of Tirhut,
specially of Darbhanga, Saharsa and Purnea, speak a dialect known as
Jolahiboli (Jolahi dialect), which, though a form of corrupt Maithili, is
infected with Persian, Arabic and Urdu words. The Chika-Chiki dialect
of the south of the Ganges, specially of the districts of Bhagalpur,
Monghyr and Santhal Parganas is descended from Maithili. It is the result
of a well-marked dialect from its frequent use of the-syllable “Chhika”,
which is the base on which the conjugation of the verb substantive is
conjugated.
Thus apart from the four standard types, Chika-Chiki, Jolahi, Khotta
and Goalari are the prominent dialects of Maithili and literary
compositions in these dialects are now coming out. The Chika-Chiki belt
has assumed the new name Angika and the western dialect is being
boosted as Vajjika in recent years. Maithili is spoken with a refined sense
of literary taste in the Terai area of Nepal. Maithili,that way, has acquired
the international status. Literary compositions in Maithili are coming
up in the Terai area of Nepal.
The important dialectical variations of Maithili are as follows:
(i) The Standard Maithili — North Darbhanga District
(ii) The Southern Standard — South Darbhanga, East
Muzaffarpur,North Monghyr
Saharsa and West Purnea.
(iii) The Eastern Standard — East Purnea, Maldah and
Dinajpur (also known as
Khotta).
(iv) The Chika-Chiki — South Bhagalpur, North
Santhal Parganas, South
Monghyr.
(v) The Western Standard — West Muzaffarpur and East
Champaran.
(vi) Jolahi — Weavers of Tirhut.
(vii) The Central Colloquial — Darbhanga, Saharsa, Nepal
Terai. There is a difference
between the language of the
Shrotriyas and the lower
castes.
CHAPTER—II
Evolution of the
Language and Script
As one of the important Aryan languages of India, Maithili is current today
among a vast mass of people with a long literary tradition. The
antiquity of the language is evident from the fact that it is traced to the
early compositions of the Charyapadas. Behind the pre-eminence of
Maithili was the great scholarly tradition of Sanskrit learning in Mithila,
where the old veterans in the past did not neglect the study of their
mother-tongue. The unbrokencontinuity of the language is a proof of
this fact. The classical writers in the middle ages seem to have been well
acquainted with Sanskrit, Avahatta, Prakrit, Maithili and even Arabic
and Persian.
A scientific research into the origin and development of Maithili is
yet a desideratum. Enquiry on modern lines of research into the
languages began as early as the second half of the 18th century A.D. As
early as 1771 A.D., we find Tourtiana (Tirhutiya) mentioned in the
Alphabetum Brahmanicum (Vide-Amaduzzi’s preface to Beligat-ti’s
Alphabetum Brahmanicum). Colebrooke used the word Mithilee or Mythili
(for Maithili) in 1801 A.D. (Vide Essays, I-73. p. 26) and since then
researches into the history of the origin and development of the language
have been going on. The missionaries of Serampore refer to this language
in the memoirs of their society. They also called it Mithilee or Mythili and
used some of its form for comparison with some of the Aryan languages
in the sixth memoir in 1816. The earliest reference to Tirhutiya language,
in sources other than Maithili, is in the Ain-i-Akbari (Jarret’s translation-
Vol. III. 253), where it is recognised as a distinct language.
Vidyapati calls it “desilabayana” or country language or Avahatta.
The language of the Kirtilata represents the Maithili Apabhramsa of the
fourteenth century A.D. “Desilabayana” indicates that the language
represents the speech of the time, particularly of the cultured classes.
The word Avahatta seems to be a derivative from Apabhrasta, a synonym
of Apabhramsa. Sripati in his commentary on the Prakritpaingalam says,
“Apabhrasta is said to be slightly different from Prakrit. Some scholars
identify local dialects with Apabhramsa. Whatever be their indebtedness
to Sanskrit or Prakrit in matters of inflexional rules, only that language
is to be taken as Apabhramsa where that is laukika (or popular).” Lochana
says, “Even among the country songs, on account of their being of a
good country, first of all, several examples of modes of songs of Mithila,
composed by the poet, Vidyapati, in Maithili Apabhramsa language are
given.” The Ain-i-Akbari mentions the Nachari songs of Mithila.
Attempts at the chronological history of the language have been
made by Chanda Jha, Raghunandan Das, Bholalal Das, Ramanath Jha,
Surendra Jha ‘Suman’, Kulanand Das ‘Nandan, Jivanath Jha, Chetanath
Jha, Shyam Narain Singh, the Datta brothers, Narendranath Das, Mm.
Dr. Umesh Mishra, Dr. Jayakant Mishra, Govinda Jha, Bholanath Jha
and others. Dr. Subhadra Jha’s “Formation of the Maithili Language” is a
monumental work and a major contribution in the field of linguistic
knowledge. Dr. J. K. Mishra has published the history of the Maithili
language and literature in two volumes. The writer of these lines has
also contributed in his own way in bringing out the peculiarities of pre-
Vidyapati Maithili and a number of other contributions relating to the
literature of Mithila in the background of historical perspective.
Though there is a difference of opinion regarding the origin and
development of Maithili, it is accepted by all that it belongs to the eastern
branch of the Aryan language. It appears to have descended from a form
of Prakrit or middle Indo-Aryan, a descendant of Sanskrit or the old
Indo-Aryan. The linguistic data of the Ashokan edicts confirm our belief
that liberal emperor chose a language that was spoken and understood
by the people at large. The peculiarities of the eastern languages, as found
in the Satapatha Brahmana, continued and became more marked in the
later period. Ashokan edicts give us at least four varieties, viz. northwestern,
south-western, east-central and eastern. The Chandasastra of
Pingala which deals with the metre of classical Sanskrit seems to have
been compiled in the third century B. C. at the court of Pataliputra for
Rajasekhar makes the author a member of the learned metropolitan
assembly, while according to Divyavadana he was appointed by Bindusara
as teacher to Ashoka. The Buddhist literature, during this period, must
have been compiled in its homeland in between second century B.C.
and second century A.D. Though Sanskrit continued as the literary
language, Prakrit was also getting popular. The epigraphic tradition
established by Ashoka continued for several centuries in the whole of
eastern India, though changes in language and contents could be noticed.
The Ashokan varieties continued to hold the field till they underwent a
change and developed into several Indo-Aryan languages. The Prakrit,
out of which grew all the eastern languages, had its distinguishing
regional characteristics and was subject to the change of time.
During the Gupta period, Prakrit was ousted by Sanskrit in
inscriptions and even the Buddhist scholars began to use more and more
Sanskrit. The successors of Ashvaghosh adopted all the characteristics
of the Kavya style. The logicians and philosophers followed suit and the
Sanskritisation of the Buddhist texts ended in the adoption of pure
classical Sanskrit. It became the court language while Prakrit remained
the spoken language of the masses. In the dramas, both Sanskrit and
Prakrit were used and Kalidasa’s dramas are the best examples of such
mixture. People in the upper strata of society used Sanskrit; while female
and inferior characters used Prakrit. Prakrit, being the spoken language
of the people, differed from place to place. Both Bhasa and Kalidasa used
Maharashtri form of Prakrit as the medium for erotic lyric. The Prakrit-
Prakash of Vararuchi deals with the Maharashtri Prakrit. The second form
was Sauraseni and the third form was Ardhamagadhi of the Jain
canonical works. The latest stage in their evolution, before they gave
birth to the Bhashas, was the Apabhramsa. The eastern branch of the
Aryan language give rise to Magadhi Prakrit, the parent of all eastern
languages. Magadhi Prakrit is said to have developed in about third or
fourth century A. D. It is difficult to construct a proper history of the
earliest form.
Magadhi was the spoken form of Magadha out of which developed
the Magahi and Maithili languages of Bihar. The main characteristics of
Magadhi Prakrit are the interchange or abolition of case-endings, the
tendency to corrupt ‘r’ into ‘l’ the substitution of palatal s for the dental
and cerebral ‘s’, the substitution of dental ‘n’ for the cerebral n, of the
palatal ‘j’ for semivowel ‘y’, and of the labial ‘b’ for the semi-vowel ‘y’
These characteristics are mostly found in Maithili. By the time when the
edicts of Ashoka were inscribed, the change of ‘r’ to ‘h’ seems to have
been completely established. At the time of Hiuentsang (circa-7th Century
A. D).), the Magadhi Prakrit Apabhramsa was possibly representing the
transitional stage before the final emergence of Maithili. According to K.
L. Barua, the Kamrupa dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili
and it was, no doubt, the spoken Aryan language throughout the
kingdom which then included the whole of Assam valley and whole of
North Bengal with the addition of the district of Purnea. The language
of the Buddhist Dohas is described as belonging to the mixed Maithili—
Kamrupi language (Vide-Early History of Kamrupa, p. 318).
The period between 800 and 1200 A. D. saw the emergence of the
eastern new Indo-Aryan languages, commonly known as Magadhan
languages, from the local variety of Prakrit Apabhramsa, the latest phase
of middle Indo-Aryan. A simple and colloquial form of it, called Avahatta
or Apabhrasta, was the direct ancestor of the new Indo-Aryan languages.
The Prakrit languages, current in different regions of India between 500
B. C. and 500 A. D., were based on the middle Indo-Aryan regional
dialects. It should be noted here that all the characteristics of the Magadhi
Prakrit of old grammarians are not found in the eastern dialects of
Ashokan times though they are seen in text of the Ramgarh cave hill
inscription. The later records reveal to us a mass of information about
the literary forms of Apabhramsa-Avahatta. It has local forms in the
different regions of the country and those forms gave rise to a number of
eastern dialects in the early period. Mahavir and Buddha delivered their
sermons in the eastern languages and the old strata of the Jaina and
Buddhist literatures contain the earliest specimen. The secular use of
language came mainly from the east as will be evident from the
Prakritpainglam, a comprehensive work on Prakrit and Apabhramsa-
Avahatta poetry. Besides being the repository of early lyric poetry, it
also contains eulogies of kings and heroes and herein are mentioned
Chandeshwara and Haribrahma of Mithila. The difficulty was that the
scholars, then, did not think it elegant enough to use the spoken language
as literary language. The Folk poetry must have existed in profusion
and much of the material might have been incorporated into the lyrics
and ritualistic poems of subsequent centuries. The social life of the people
was dominated almost entirely by rituals and religious functions and
the annual festivals of a number of Gods and Goddesses provided
occasions for the contribution of poets and musicians. This was the social
set up in which the vernacular literature was born from religious tradition
and folk-lore. There were good historical-cum-romantic poems and
narratives, existing in early Apabhramsa-Avahatta and in folk-lore too,
a very good instance is the story of Lorika, which has assumed epic status.
Jyotirishwar mentions Lorika. Mithila, being pre-eminently an
agricultural area, produced two eminent persons like Daka and Ghagha
and their writings belong to the earliest stage of Maithili, though their
language has gone on changing from generation to generation. J.
Christian published a good collection of the sayings of Daka in the Bihar
Proverbs in 1891. He belonged to the Ahir community of Mithila. Lorika
ballad was very popular in the age of Jyotirishwar and the story was
known even to the Sufi thinkers of the early fourteenth century A. D. as
is evident from the Chandayana of Mulla Daud. Chandayana has since
been edited and published by Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta.
The languages of eastern India show common features and
peculiarities. Due to the accoustic similarity, ‘1’ and ‘r’ became very much
confused. The presence of such a confusion is suggested by early Maithili
writings. In several places, where it is found in early Maithili ‘r’ is present
in modern Maithili. ‘R’ ‘L’, ‘R’ is found in Sarvananda, Kirtilata and in
the Nepal Mss of Vidyapati. The Newari orthography for Maithili also
suggest that ‘L’ and ‘R’ were not well-defined accoustic distinction and
both of them were close to ‘L’. Consequently both were interchanging.
‘L’ was confused with ‘R’ Which began to be used for it in the spoken
language of Mithila at an early period, at least after the time of
Sarvananda. Maithili words have been used by the early philosophical
writers of Mithila by way of illustration. Vachaspati Mishra in his Bhamati
had used a Maithili word ‘Hadi’. Sarvananda, in his commentary on
Amarakosha, uses about four hundred Maithili words. The use of
vernacular in such an important commentary as early as the eleventh
century A.D. has rightly attracted the attention of the linguists like S.K.
Chatterji, Sukumar Sen, N. P. Chakravarti, Subhadra Jha and others.
Important writers of Mithila like Chandeshwara, Rucipati, Jagaddhara,
Vachaspati II and others have frequently used Maithili words in their
Sanskrit works. Vachaspati II in his Tattvachintamani and Vidyapati in
his Danavakyavali have profusely used typical Maithili words of daily
use. The direct vernacular names of places and persons are found in the
early Panji records.
In about 900 A. D., Maithili came to be distinguished as an
independent language from Magadhi-Prakrit and that may be taken as
its starting point. It is one of the oldest languages that saw the light on
the disruption of the Prakrit. From Sarvanand, it is evident that Maithili
had become an independent speech distinct from the Apabhramsa. The
monumental classic of Jyotirishwar marks the culmination of a style
which must have been cultivated for centuries before its maturity, The
Prakritpainglam supplies us with some of the pure Maithili words and an
examination of the language of the verses shows that there is nothing in
them that may prevent them from being called Maithili of an early period.
The language of the Charyapadas, Sarvananda, Prakritpainglam, Kirtilata
and Kirtipataka, represents Maithili of the oldest period in as much as it
preserves some of the Apabhramsa characteristics. All these works
display the genesis of the language. From Jyotirishwar to Manabodha,
the language represents a form of independence and vitality. Manabodha,
who is on the border line, has frequently used auxiliaries which are very
prominent in modern Maithili, marked by a very complex conjugation
of verbs. Vidyapati in his Purushapariksha has also used Maithili words.
He was not very scrupulous or accurate in the forms he used and he did
not hesitate to use in Sanskrit the forms which he used in Maithili. This
could have been possible only if Maithili at that time was a distinct
language of which Vidyapati was conscious. In his songs, we find a
studied preference for Tadbhava words to pure Tatsama words.
The preponderance of Prakrit words, called Tadbhava, form the
vacabulary of Maithili as of all other modern Indian languages, though
Tatsama words are not altogether absent. It is the Tadbhava words more
than Tatsama that bring out the linguistic peculiarity of a region. A
language goes on developing peculiar form of the original words as it
moves away from the parental language in time and space. The change
of ‘L’ in Sanskrit into ‘R’ in Tadbhava is a characteristic morphological
feature of the old north-eastern, commonly known as Magadhi-Prakrit
from which sprang the eastern languages. In inflexion, Maithili has its
own individuality. In grammatical form, too, Maithili has an independent
system. In case of conjugation, “Maithili stands aloof from all in following
very scrupulously the complex rules regarding the honorific and nonhonorific
sense as well as about the use of the approximate personal
terminations indicative of the person of both the subject and the object”
(Grierson, Maithili Grammar, p. 2). On account of its close proximity to
Bhojpuri in the west and Bengali in the east, its sound system has been
affected and that has led some scholars to suggest that it has descended
from the Ardhamagadhi and not Magadhi (Journal of the Bihar Research
Society, XLIII, pp. 61-62). But the sources at our disposal enable us to
assert that Maithili grew out of Magadhi-Prakrit. Borrowings continue
in a growing language and, if at all, there are both Magadhi and
Ardhamagadhi forms in Maithili, there is nothing unusual about it. The
deviation of Maithili from Magadhi in regard to ‘Y’ can be understood if
the existence of an intermediate sound between ‘Y’ and ‘J’ is recognised;
The influence of Sukla-Yajurveda in Mithila had led to the double
pronounciation of ‘Y’ (‘Y’ and ‘J’). In the ‘Desaja‘ (vernacular) words; the
peculiarities of Maithili are more pronounced.
Prior to the advent of the vernacular languages, Apabhramsa Avahatta
was a literary language, and with some local variations here and there,
it was practically the common language from Gujrat to Bengal. The form
of that Apabhramsa was known as Laukika or popular. The full fledged
literary form of this language/can be gleaned through the Prakritpainglam,
compiled somewhere in eastern India and commented upon in Mithila,
which may be reckoned as a good collection of some of the finest lyrics.
Some of its lyrics can be hardly distinguished from Maithili. Jayadeva
made the last attempt at the resurrection of Sanskrit through his musical
lyrics into the strong frame of Sanskrit poetry. The rhythm and rhyme of
his lyrics belong to the Apabhramsa poetry. He exerted great influence
on the lyrical tradition of Mithila. Avahatta was being cultivated in
Mithila for a pretty long time and the tradition of historical poetry had
not gone out of fashion. One of the earliest and the best compositions in
Avahatta is the Kirtilata of Vidyapati recording the exploits of his patron
Kirtisimha. The earliest available specimen of rimed prose in pure
Maithili is Jyotirishwar’s varnanaratnakara: It presents to us the earliest
and the longest specimen of the early new Indo-Aryan prose. The fact
that the work is written in a vernacular speech, with Tadbhava or Prakrit
forms renders its importance all the more greater as affording us a sure
evidence of having become a part of the daily life of the people. In the
fourteenth century A. D. Maithili had a finished poetic diction based on
Avahatta tradition with a good mixture of the native dialect. The lyrics
of Umapati (c. 14th century A. D.) show this diction in twenty one Maithili
songs of his drama, Parijataharana These songs are the unique
achievements of the new Indo-Aryan language and may be taken as the
finished products of a long literary tradition. Vidyapati, superseded all
his predecessors in matters of thought, imagery, diction, finish and
varieties of style. Maithili style and diction crossed the frontier and spread
into the neighbouring country of Nepal in the north and in the sister
provinces of Assam, Bengal and Orissa, where the lyric poets avidly
cultivated the diction of Maithili poets. It goes to the credit of Maithili
diction to retain “the measured rhythm of the moraic metre and the pithy
picturesqueness of the old and the middle Indo-Aryan ornamental and
amorous verse and turn it into a poetic language. The tradition of rimed
and stuccato prose had already been set by Jyotirishwar to be used as
hand-book by story tellers.... Brajabuli had as its basis the tradition of
the Avahatta poetry and the diction of Umapati and Vidyapati” (Sukumar
Sen).
Maithili emerged out of Magadhi, the parent of Assamese,. Bengali
and Oriya. Linguist like Taraporewala and Grierson suggest the
emergence of Maithili from Magadhi and S. K. Chatterji and Umesh
Mishra believe it to have descended from central Magahi. Judged from
all points of view, phonetic, infexional, conjugation and syntax, Maithili
appears to have descended from Magadhi. Maithili has special verbal
forms with affixed and infexed pronouns and an elaborate system of
honorific and other verb forms with reference to the object. It is the direct
descendant of the old forms of the speech of Magadhi-Prakrit and has
much in common with them in its infexional system. There is internal
evidence about the origin of Maithili in Lochana’s RT. The Apabhramsa
Avahatta (Desilabayana) of Vidyapati is the representative of Maithili and
could be distinguished from classical Sanskrit or Prakrit. It is very closely
related to Bangali, Oriya and Assamese and it has certain Magadhan
traits still present in it. Maithili is one of the important dialects of the
Indic group of the Indo-European language. The development of the
Indo-Aryan language may be explained as follows :
(i) Old Indo-Aryan — (i) Spoken; (ii) Literary (Vedic and Classical
Sanskrit), and (iii) mixed Sanskrit.
(ii) Middle Indo-Aryan — evolved out of the old spoken Indo-Aryan
in three stages: (i) Primary middle Indo-Aryan recorded in
Ashokan and early inscription and Pali, (ii) Secondary Middle
Indo-Aryan or Prakrit, represented by Marathi, Sauraseni,
Paisachi, Ardham aigadhi and Magadhia, and
(iii) New Indo-Aryan —evolved out of Apabhramsa and is represented
by modern Indo-Aryan speeches like Assamese, Bengali, Oriya,
Maithili, Avadhi, Bhojpuri Gujrati, Kashmiri, Hindi, Marathi,
Nepali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sindhi and others.
Though evolving out of Magadhi, Maithili agrees with Bhojpuri and
other neighbouring languages on several points on which it differs from
Bengali, for example, in pronounciation of sounds in general and in
declension of stems in particular. In points of morphology, it has some
affinity with Avadhi and on this score, it differs from Bengali, Assamese
and Oriya and that entitled it to be treated as an independent form of
speech. Dr. Subhadra Jha says, “This claim is further supported by the
presence in it of certain elements which are wanting in all other NIA
language. This is the case specially in conjugation.........it is really an
independent language and cannot be included either in Hindi or Bengali
as one of the dialects of either of these, and that on the basis of
lexicography only”.
II
The Script
The Maithili script, Mithilakshara or Tirhuta as it is popularly known,
is of a great antiquity.. The Lalitavistara mentions the Vaidehi script. Brahmi
is considered to be the mother of all Indian scripts. The Maithili script is
derived from an eastern alphabet of a variety of the Gupta script. The
development of eastern variety has not been clearly shown in Buhler’s
chart. The proto-Maithili forms were evolved long before the
development of the Nagari form which had very little influerice on the
development Maithili script. The eastern variety is distinct from the days
of the Kushanas and the Guptas. Dr. A. F. R. Hoernle observed that during
the Gupta period, the northern class of alphabets was divided into two
great sections which may be distinguished as western and eastern
sections. Early in the latter half of the seventh century A. D., we find a
marked change in the north-eastern alphabet and the inscriptions of
Adityasena exhibit this change for the first time and hence forward the
eastern variety develops by itself and becomes the Maithili script—a script
which ultimately comes into use in Assam, Bengal and Nepal. Some
Scholars call it Gaudiya script. This aspect is visible from the inscriptions
of the later Gupta kings and of the Pala kings whose inscriptions from
north Bihar show the earlier traits of the Maithili script. Epigraphic
materials from Vaishali, a copperplate inscription discovered recently
from Katra (Muzaffarpur), the Imadpur image inscriptions of the time
of Mahipala I and the Naulagarh and Bangaon inscriptions of
Vigrahapala III testify to the peculiarities of the early Maithili script.
The script of the Andhratharhi Inscription of Shridhara Das is Maithili
and an inscription in Maithili character of the time of Akbar has recently
been discovered from the Godda Subdivision of the district of Santhal
Pargana. The development of Maithili script can be studied from the
handwriting of Vidyapati and from the Maithili MSS, preserved in
different museums, ranging from the thirteenth to the nineteenth century
A. D. The Maithili script of the fifteenth century A. D. can be examined
from the two silver coins of Bhairavasimhadeva of the Oinwara dynasty
and from the Kandaha and Bhagirathpur inscriptions.
There was a common script throughout the whole of north-eastern
India. Manuscripts in Maithili character have been noticed in Tibet by
the late Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayana. To most of the Bengali Pandits,
who read Sanskrit at Mithila or elesewhere, this script was known as
Tirute or Tirhuta. There was hardly any difference between the old Bengali
and Maithili alphabets. The similarity of the Maithili and the Bengali
script has led some scholars to describe the former as a copy of the latter.
The European scholars of the nineteenth century A. D. described it as
the OJHA script, though the form Tirhuta was known to them in 1771.
The name Tirhuta is derived from Tirabhukti, by which name Mithila
was known in the Gupta period. The earliest recorded epigraphic
evidence of the script is to be found in the Mandar Hill Stone inscriptions
of Adityasena (c. 7th century A. D.), now fixed in the Baidyanath temple,
Deoghar. The next stage of the development of script can be gleaned
throgh the terracotta plaque inscription of the La. Sam 67 (in possession
of the writer of these lines)—discovered from Begusarai (Vide R.K.
Chaudhary, Inscription of Bihar, p. 133). The development of the Maithili
script can be studied with the help of the following inscriptions
discovered in Mithila, viz. Shrinagar inscription, Andhratharhi inscription,
Asi-Matiahi inscription of Vardhamana of the Vilva-pancha dynasty, Khojpur
Durga image inscription, Tilkeshwara temple inscription, Kandaha inscription
of Narasimhadeva; Bhagirathpur inscription, Barantpur inscription of Sarva-
Simhadeva, Bideshwara and Madhuravanishwar temple inscriptions and
various others. They refer to the various forms of Maithili script through
the ages. The MSS of Baudha Gan 0 Doha, the Kurrukullasawana (noticed
by Rahul Sankrityayana in Tibet), the Vishnupurana the copy of the
Karnaparva dated La. Sam 327 (1447 A.D.), the Bhagwata in the
handwriting of Vidyapati, the Gitagovinda of Karana Ratipati Bhagat and
the judgement, written by Sachal Mishra in the 18th century A. D. are
the living specimens of the Maithili script. Thousands of palm-leaf MSS
give evidence of the fact that the script was extensively used not only in
Mithila but in other parts as well.
At this stage, it is not possible to state categorically as to how the
Mithilakshara or Tirhuta script came into being. The script has certain
peculiarities of its own which mark its individuality. Originating from
the same source, both Bengali and Oriya have comparatively changed
but that is not the case with Maithili, though there is a marked difference
between the old and the new ‘R’. The Mithilakshara begins with ‘Anji’
and all auspicious work or writing in Mithila begins with this particular
sign. ‘Anji’ is also prevalent in the Assamese. It is belived to be the sign
of Kundalini, a serpent shaped divinity that pervades every letter and
regulates its pronounciation. ‘Anji’ is the symbol of the Tantric Kundalini
indicating creative energy. The Trikona, Chatuskona, Vritta and Bindu of
the Mithilakshara represent the Tantric Yantra. It has peculiar forms for
most of its compound letters. Short and long matras are distinguished.
The alphabet is popularly known as Kakahara. It has a descriptive form
for each form of letter and had special descriptive epithets to distinguish
letters which are similarly pronounced. The letters end in Urdhvagati (in
upward strokes). The ornamental style of Maithili writing was archaic.
In Mithila, a child begins to read and write with a set formulae
“Siddhirastu” (let there be success). We have a reference to this particular
word in the Dohakosha of Sarhapada. The couplet is as follows:
“Let there be success – the formulae was my first lesson, but
by feeding only on gruel I forgot the alphabet. Now I have learnt
only a single letter; but I know not its name, O, my dear”.
The script had its beginning in the early years of the Christian era
and living epigraphic specimen in the Vaishali region show a marked
difference from its western variety of the Brahmi. From the sixth to the
twelfth century A. D., it appears that there was almost a common script
throughout eastern India, out of which the various scripts of eastern
India have developed. The script, current from Varanasi to Assam in
those days, was probably the eastern variety of Kutila.Some call it proto-
Bengali or proto-Nagri though in recent times the theory of Gaudiya script
is gaining currency. Dr. S. K. Chatterji believes that the alphabets of both
Maithili and Bengali have developed out of the common script of eastern
India in the post-Gupta period. The Tibetan traveller, Dharmaswami,
who visited Mithila in the first half of the thirteenth century A. D. and
was honoured by the Karnata King, Ramasimhadeva, has mentioned
the use of Vaivarta script. This was the proto-Maithili script then current
in Mithila. It is evident from the inscriptions of Kanaka-bhanga (JB0RS,
II, pp. 355 ff) that upto the fifteenth century A.D. early Oriya and Maithili
Scripts were very much similar. Acharya Parmananda Shastri has written
an account of the origin of the Maithili script in a number of articles in
the various issues of Mithila Mihira (Patna) and Pandit Rajeshwar Jha
has published a detailed and exhaustive account of the origin and
development of Maithili Script (Mithilaksaraka Udbhava 0 Vikasa,Patna,
1971). Though there are grounds for difference of opinion regarding the
theories propounded by him and to which attention has been drawn by
Dr. S. K. Chatterjee in his letter (in an explicit manner), the fact remains
that the book is the only authoritative published material on the
development of Maithili script (incorporating all the latest researches).
Some of his findings are far-fetched and in most cases unacceptable.
Three alphabets, Maithili, Kaithi and Devanagari, are in use in modern
times for writing Maithili. The use of Mithilakshara is now limited to the
Maithil Brahmanas and Karana Kayasthas who use this script on all
ceremonial and religious occasions. After independence, the Kaithi script
has been replaced by the Devanagari character. The use of Maithili script
is becoming more and more restricted as a large number of writers have
begun to use Devanagari script for all purposes. Like Gujrati and Marathi,
the Maithili writers have opted out for the common Devanagari script. A
movement for the revival of the old script is, no doubt, there but there is
hardly any chance of replacing Devanagari script by Mithilakshara, which
is getting obsolete day by day.
CHAPTER—III
Forms of Early Maithili Poetry
LINGUISTIC PECULIARITIES
The language which Hiuentsang found spoken in the region of Tirhut
was probably the Apabhramsa of the Magadhi Prakrit representing the
transitional stage before the final emergence of Maithili. The oldest
available work in Maithili are the songs of the Buddhist saints, believed
to be composed in Prakrit-Apabhramsa and equally claimed as their own
by the scholars of Bengali. Assamese, Oriya and Hindi. Dr. S. K. Chatterji
explains the non-Bengali elements in the Charya songs as deriving from
the language of the scribes who were either Maithilas or Nepalesei. The
pronominal adjectival forms like Kaisana, taisana are well known in
Maithili of different periods and the genitive in ka found in the Charya
songs characterises the language of Mithila. Third person forms in tu of
these songs are common in Vidyapati and the abundance of verbal forms
in U in the VR leaves no doubt as to their being in pure Maithili. Third
person verbal forms in thi are indigenous in Maithili and the other verbal
forms too are equally known in the early Maithili. Some of the earliest
forms of the early Maithili poetry are still found current and at least one
form, in somewhat changed form, is still current in Maithili, and that is,
“the woman fears a crow during the day time but goes to Kamrupa at
night”. The Charya songs are believed to have represented a proto-
Maithili dialect of the Chika-Chiki area and was in Maithili character of
the north-eastern variety.
The verbal forms derived from the past participle form of old
transitive verbs, agree in gender with accusative in the Charyas in several
cases and this was also the case in early Maithil (cf. Chary-37-Tuti-geli).
Most of the words of the Charya songs (Kaisan-Kehana; Taisana-Tehana)
are yet current in Maithili. The adverbial forms of the song are profusely
used in the VR and Vidyapati. They represent the midway between the
standard Maithili and Bengali of the old period with some common
features of the Magadhan speech. As a matter of fact they are as remote
from modern Maithili as Langland’s Piers Plowman is from modern
English. Any pride in the poems could be justified only if their
interpretation was found to hinge on words now current in any particular
region and nowhere else or by direct circumstantial evidence of history
and geography. There are hundreds of words in these poems which are
universally current in modern Maithili and that is why they are claimed
to be the parent stock of Maithili. They are only the beginning of a genre
of religious poetry that has been adopted by the successive poets of
Mithila. The Charya songs are believed to be the earliest specimen of
Maithili. They are in matravritta (based on the matra or weight of the
syllable) metre. It means the various modes in which the songs are meant
to be sung. They are designed to provide hints for the esoteric practice
of the Sahajiya cult. Highly symbolical and mystical jargons are used,
the meaning of which is not very clear. It has to be borne in mind here
that, till the ninth century A. D., the languages of the eastern provinces
had not developed any feature distinct enough to be clearly distinguished
from one another. That is the reason why the earliest records of fortyseven
padas, discovered by the late Mm. H. P. Shastri, have been equally
claimed by all the linguistic groups of eastern India. These manuscripts
are in original Maithili script and the language shows features common
to Maithili speech. The joinning of metre with melodies (Ragas and
Raginis) is found in the Charyapadas. The absence of Payar (fourteen
syllables) in these songs, a peculiarity of the Bengali or eastern Magadhi
metre, is an important proof of the fact that these songs are in Maithili.
The Buddhist saints and teachers, belonging to the universities of
Nalanda Vikramshila, composed these songs in Magadhi-Prakrit, the
predecessor of Maithili. The language of the Charya song is generally
believed to represent the stage when Maithili had just emerged from the
Magadhi-Apabhramsa. These songs were meant to be sung and they
were also translated into Tibetan.
Rahul Sankrityayana, K.P. Jayaswal, Umesh Mishra, Narendra Nath
Das, Prof. Sahidulla and others including the writer of these lines have
tried to show that the Charyagitis are the oldest specimen of Maithili.
Shivanandan Thakur has critically examined the linguistic peculiarities
of these songs and has arrived at the same conclusion. Most of the
composers were the inhabitants of Bihar and they extended over a period
of about four hundred years, that is, from the eighth to the twelfth century
A. D. The earliest composition is by Sarahapada and the latest by
Dhendapa. The VR refers to the Siddhacharyas. They represented an
amalgam of Trantricism and Saivism. It is in Maithili that the cultural
atmosphere of the Siddhacharya Padas has been faithfully reflected and
preserved. These Padas are as near to the spoken language of the people
as possible since their aim was to preach to the masses. The
preponderance of Tadbhava is a further proof of their being close to
Maithili. The rhymes of the Siddha poets appear to have influenced later
Maithili poets. The Dohas are mostly in Apabhramsa and the .Charyagitas
are in vernacular. The Dohakosha betrays great affinity with, the language
of the VR, Kirtilata, Kirtipataka and Padavali of Vidyapati. The dominant
position of the dental sibilant, the use of Ain as instrumental singular
suffix; the use of Chandrabindu in a post position; the use of—Ka as a
genitive suffix; the use of–hi or even -e for locative etc., are some of the
common features besides the use of a number of typical Maithili words
and idioms. These songs betray some lingering traces of Avahatta. Some
of the composers also wrote in Avahatta. The stress on the penultimate
syllable ; or on the last long vowels, as used in the Charyapadas, is met
with in the VR and in the Padavali of Vidyapati. Several important features
of morphology are found in them and in the early Maithili writings.
The colour and imagery of the Charyapadas also give them a Maithili
colour.
The Charya poems constitute an important link in the history of
Maithili literature between the Sanskrit Udbhata poetry and the
Apabhramsa vernacular Pada writing. It is surprising that neither the
character of the old Magadhi Prakrit disclosed by the Dohas could be
noticed, nor could it be perceived that the language of the Dohas differed
very much from that of the songs. That one Doha differs from the other
in the matter of language and the song as well differ from one another in
respect of language can be noticed even by a superficial reader having
some knowledge of Prakrit. Even when the language ceased to be the
spoken it had become a fashion to compose doctrinal songs in the old
time language. Consequently when the Abdhutas flocked together
somewhere in upper India and composed their songs, they used many
provincial words of their respective provinces while attempting to
compose their songs in the then half-forgotten old Prakrit. That is why
the archaic Prakrit forms are in the company of words of various
provinces, though the main structure of the songs is in Prakrit. On the
basis of the above observations and facts, it can be said that the Charyagiti
is the earliest specimen of literary Maithili productions and it represented
the proto-vernacular stage of Apabhramsa. It shows some features that
are distinctly laukika (popular).
The literary Apabhramsa-Avahatta became the starting point of the
new Indo-Aryan languages of eastern India. The Tantric Buddhists used
Apabhramsa-Avahatta in their popular sermons addressed to the
neophytes and the laity and some of them are preserved in the Dohakosha
of Sarahapa, Tillo and Kanha. Vernacular was also the medium of the
mystic or the Charya songs of Lui, Kanha, Sarahapa, Dhamma, Bhusuku,
Shanti, Jaganandi, Kukkuri, Darika, Tanti, Nara and others. All of them
flourished between the tenth and thirteenth century A. D. and they hailed
from different parts of India and were attached to various monasteries.
It seems that much of the folk-poetry were incorporated into these lyrics
and ritualistic poems. These vernacular poems grew out of tradition and
folklore and in its earliest phases, it represented people’s culture as
opposed to the elegant style of Sanskrit. In no other literature, do we get
such a faithful recording of the cultural atmosphere and tradition of these
Siddhas as in the VR. Gorakhanatha seems to have been influenced by
these Siddhas and their rhymes appear to have influenced Vidyapati and
the poets of the Brajabuli literature of Assam and Bengal. The floating
mass of popular poetry in PPm is nothing but a continuation of that
tradition and a representation of the Maithili Avahatta in which Vidyapati
also composed. The example of the Charya lyric songs and Jayadeva
vitalised the tradition of lyric in Mithila and by the time of Jyotirishwar
Maithili had acquired prestige as a fit vehicle of expression of the highest
emotions.
II
Nature, Form and Contents of Early Maithili Poetry
The earliest of the mystic poets, Sarhapa, belonged to the eighth
century A. D. and the latest, Dhendhanapa, belonged to the twelfth
century A. D. All of them belonged to the Sahajayana School, so called
from the fact that it supplied an easy method for attaining the summunbonum.
It was borrowed not only from the Mahayana Buddhism but
also from the amalgam of the Tantric cults and Saivite practices. Even
Matsyendranatha and Gorakhanatha have been claimed as its teacher.
These singers made invaluable contribution towards the development
of early Maithili poetry whose tradition of unbroken continuity is an
amazing factor in the history of Indian literature. The mainspring of
literary exuberance continued shifting from place to place and came to
be handled by more experienced persons in the years that followed.
Though not strictly literary compositions in the accepted sense of
the term, these songs were written for a limited audience. These poets
do not seem to have been so much interested in the form and diction of
the songs as in their content. They always carried double meaning and
that is why this is known as Sandhyabhasha or the code language. Pandit
Vidusekhar Shastri has pointed out that it should be corrected as
Sandhyabhasha meaning “intentional speech” and not the “twilight of
language” as maintained by Dr. Haraprasad Shastri. These songs really
followed a traditional pattern in their inner meaning but outwardly they
have a real literary flavour. These outward meaning guards the inner
sense since the inner meaning recorded the mystic practice, experience
and emotion of the master in his process of self realisation. These songs
represented a definite school of philosophy. By their very nature, the
Charya songs are obscure and their obscurity is further complicated by
the corrupt text. The subject matter is mystical centering round the
esoteric and erotic doctrines. The Dohakosha, though not so mystical, are
abtruse enough. According to the Charya singers, the human body and
mind form a microcosm of which the outside is only its replica or
macrocosm. By controlling one’s own body functions and liquidating
volitions, one could attain the blissful state of complete neutrality (or
Sahaja) and thereby become truly immortal. In one of his songs, Kanha
says.
“In the state of neutrality the soul is merged into the void.
So be not sorrowful at the dissolution of the elements that make
up an individual entity... .so long as they remain ignorant, men
cannot acquire the true perspective just as the fat existing in milk
cannot be detected. In this existence, non-one really comes in or
goes out”.
—Charyagiti Padavali, 42.
Superstitious beliefs and derogatory practices were sapping vital
foundations of the society and initiative of the people. The gulf between
the upper and the lower classes was widening. As a result of the Muslim
invasion, the social and the cultural set up was shattered and the self
complacency of the ruling classes and priest-hood got a stunning blow.
Out of this emerged a new phase of life which witnessed the flowering
of the vernacular languages all over the country. The tradition set by the
earlier Sidhas continued and seems to have been kept alive by the later
cults. In the centuries preceding the Muslim conquest of Mithila, these
songs supply us with a good deal of information about the life and
condition of the common people. That glimpse of the social set up is
gleaned through these songs. Secret thoughts and experiences are given
in technical words of their own with a view to hide the real meaning.
They employed imageries and allegories taken from the lowly life. The
events of daily life, sorrows and happiness of the common folk, popular
occupations and the ordinary rut of people figure in these songs thereby
representing the truth then obtaining in the contemporary society. When
the learned people were sceptical about the world and other things and
were too busy with their contemplation in finding out true meaning of
things supernatural, these Charya singers were giving out truth in their
Sandhyabhasha. Purely didactic and philosophical songs are not unknown.
A vulgar side of the contemporary life is found in one of the songs of
Kanha.
“......How strange, O Doma Girl, is your coquetry? Men of class
are kept aside while a mendicant occupies the central seat.... you
are Chandala woman really, and there is no unchaste woman
smarter than you, a Doma Girl”. (Ibid, 18)
Riddles were not unknown to these composers who have vigorously
employed the old tradition of riddle verse. In one of the songs ascribed
to Dhendhana, it is said:
“My hutment stands in a populated area without any
neighbours. Not a grain of rice is in the boiling pot but the lovers
are always knocking at the door.... bullock has calved while the
cow remains barren” (Ibid, 33)
Lui, the earliest of the charya poets, gives an interesting account of
his philosophical ideas in the following lines:
“It is neither being nor non-being.......the reality is elusive, it
pervades the three essences but its identity is inscrutable........What
can I say and to whom can I make an authoritative statement, when
like the reflection of the moon on a sheet of water, it is neither real
nor unreal.” (Ibid, 29).
The Vajragiti (song of the bolt) is usually in the Avahatta language.
Representing the secret rituals of the Tantric worship, these songs
continued poet’s signatures and the melodies therein were also indicated.
Heruka, the deity of the bolt, is invoked by his beloved Yogini. The songs
are put in the form of a passionate appeal by a girl in love trying to
awaken her sleeping mate. That way, these songs represent the earliest
love lyrics in proto-vernacular. Dr. P. C. Bagchi in his edition of the
Dohakosha has quoted the following verse from the Hevajratantra,
“Arise, O Compassionate master and look at my help-lessness.
In the union of Great Ecstacy there is honey of love. Seek it, thou
of the nature of the Void. Without thee I have not. Do thou arise, O
Hevajra. Dispel the stupor of the Void. Let the desire of the Savara
girl be fulfilled. O master of love’s sport why dost thou, after
inviting guests, remaining inactive?
I am a Chandala woman, and not a clever one. Without thee,
I donot find my way. Break through the magic spell. I know they
heart. I am Doma girl, downhearted. Donot discard compassion.”
Some of mystic songs are also composed in similar archaic dialects
like the Vajra songs. They came to be known as Dohas on account of their
being didactive and directive couplets. Though called Doha most of them
are in Chaupai metre. Saraha is the oldest among the Doha poets. The
Dohaas are not devoid of charm and humour. They do echo the idea and
expression of the Charya songs. Saraha in his Dohakosha, says;
“Siddhirastu (Let there be success) was my first lesson, but by
feeding only on gruel, I forgot the alphabet”.
The authors of Dohakosha did not use the code language since that
was not fit for expression in the Dohas. Saraha says:
...nothing is kept hidden .... I am not playing false
.....The sport of love that is manifest between the lotus and the bolt;
who is there in the three worlds that is not enthralled ? Who is there that
does not feel gratified.?” (Ibid).
The Natha Cult: The Natha cult kept the tradition going. It was an
esoteric Yoga cult based on austere self negation and complete control
over emotional functions. In its original form, it was atheistic like early
Buddhism but it came under the influence of Saivite asceticism and
Tantric Yoga. Jalandhari, Kanha and others are regarded as Gurus
(preceptors) of this cult. Gorakhanatha does not occur in the Buddhist
and non-Buddhist Tantric tradition. It is Jyotirishwar who for the first
time mentions Gorakhanatha in his VR in the list of sixtyfour spiritual
masters or the Siddhas. On the basis of this evidence, we can arrive at the
conclusion that the school of Gora-khanatha had its ultimate beginning
among the people living in the Himalayan foothold in the neighbourhood
of Mithila. While his historicity is yet unknown, Minanatha is known to
us from the Buddhist sources and the VR. In his commentary on the
Charya songs, Munidatta has quoted a verse ascribed to Minanatha. The
earliest known work of the Goraksha Mina story is a short musical play
by Vidyapati, known as Gorakshavijayanataka, written in Sanskrit and
Maithili published recently from Allahabad. On the basis of these solid
evidences, it may be asserted with some amount of certainty that the
cult originated in the eastern provinces somewhere in the neighbourhood
of Mithila and that also after the disappearance of the Siddha or the Charya
singers. Jyotirishwar and Vidyapati have faithfully recorded the historical
tradition of Mithila and their account about the Natha cult cannot be
rejected outright. The VR list, supplemented by the story of Vidyapati,
is to be reckoned with in this regard. They might have utilized the
contemporary sources in this regard now lost to us. The historicity of
Jyotirishwar and Vidyapati stands confirmed and hence we can place
reliance on Vidyapati’s ‘Gorakshavijayanataka’ as one of the earliest sources
for the study of the Natha cult.
The Charya songs represent not only the mystic practices of the
Buddhists but also some of the non Buddhist yogis and the Tantrists. It
may be mentioned here that in Mithila, Tantricism was followed not
only by the Buddhists but also by the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. In
two anonymous songs of the collection, Saivite Tantricism is echoed
describing the fatal amours of Savara and the same is also echoed in the
songs of Kanha which reveal his love for a Doma lady. Mystic cults, based
as they are on esoteric practices, are common to both Tantricism and
Yoga. But a distinction has got to be made between the two. In Tantric
practices, austerity is not essential and companionship of woman is not
forbidden whereas the Yoga enjoins extreme austerities and celibacy.
Viewed in this light, the songs of Lui, Saraha, Bhusuku, Darika, Mahinda,
Ajadeva and Kamali represent the thought and practices of Yoga rather
than those of the Tantricism. Buddhist terms and expressions are, of
course, there in those songs. The Charya singers appear to have mostly
belonged to the Sahajiya cult, prevalent in the whole of eastern India in
those days. There are references to Nirvana, Mara, Sunya, Bodhi, Tathata,
etc. in those songs. Kankana of the list of the Siddhas appears to have
been quoted by Shridhara Das in his Saduktikarnamrita, wherein two of
his Sanskrit verses have been collected. They exercised great influence
on the later poets of Mithila and the neighbouring regions.
Through these songs, the Siddha directly appealed to the masses.
They vehemently criticised the caste-distinctions, meaningless
superstions and worship of deities with pompous rituals. They drew
around them a large number of followers from the lower orders of the
society. The profusion of imagery from cowherd’s life is an indication of
the fact that they were loved and respected by them. Their outright
denunciation of the showy theism and criticism of the caste-ridden society
gave them popular stature. Through their writings they brought to the
fore the real conditions of the ordinary people. They seem to have
represented a definite school of thought. These poems throw light on
the popular beliefs and faith and symbolise the external undercurrent of
the Buddhist Philosophy.
CHAPTER—IV
Triumph of Maithili Speech
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of Mithila as a distinct political unit in the last decade
of the eleventh century A. D. brought in its train a chain of cultural
renaissance. Five hundred years of the rule of the Karnatas (G. 1097-
1325 A. D.) and the Oinwaras (1325-1530 A. D ) present a panorama of
growth in all departments of life and literature. The most distinctive
aspects of the period were the geographical and racial unity of the
country, stabilisation of the political institutions, organisation of the
social, economic and religious systems and the rise of cultural
nationalism. The intellectual and artistic expression of the period may
be known alone from the production of enormous manuscripts. The
distinctive features of the age are the growth of prose and emergence of
scientific curiosity in the field of Sanskrit literature. The whole period
may be described as marking the apex of the cultural renaissance in the
domain of art and letters. The pattern of music and dancing, introduced
in the reign of Nanyadeva and perfected in the time of Harisimhadeva,
and successive glory in the field of literary achievements was due to the
final blossoming of the petals, now unfolding in different directions.
The tradition of lyrics, set into action by the early Charya singers and
Jayadeva, continued unabated as evidenced by Lochana. All these had
the cumulative effect on the literary tradition of the age and that vitalised
the speech that was already gaining ground. Maithili language developed
into a full fledged literary language with a finished and chaste poetic
diction. Even the eminent Sanskrit writers and philosophers had begun
to use vernacular terms in their writings.
The conscious development of literature came into the wake of its
progress as a language. By and large, the Maithili literature aimed at
high classical standards and it progressed in forms and elasticity by the
end of the thirteenth century A. D., which witnessed the flowering of
the language at the hands of competent masters. The period from the
thirteenth century onwards marked the triumph of the Maithili speech
both in the arena of prose and poetry and since then it went on making
strides after strides with all round success. Maithili writers and scholars
henceforward made considerable efforts to develop this language and
literature with definite aim and conscious efforts. The language was now
capable of expressing fine shades of thought and feeling with the aid of
simple forms. It had come into its own. With the triumph of Maithili
speech, the Maithila poets not only retained the measured rhythm of the
moraic metre and pithy picturesqueness of the old and the middle Indo-
Aryan ornamental and amorous verse but turned it into a poetic language
of eminence.
II
THE PANJI
According to Grierson, the Panji is a book giving particulars
concerning the Kings, Brahmanas and the Karana Kayasthas of Mithila
and much useful information can be gathered from it. The Panji is one of
the most extraordinary series of records in existence. It is composed of
immense number of palm-leaf manuscripts. It forms a piece of the Maithili
literature from the first quarter of the fourteenth century A.D. onwards
and is available. It is believed that Harisimhadeva, the last great ruler of
the Karnata dynasty, introduced the Panji for all castes in Mithila but
these records are punctiliously preserved even to this day only by the
Brahmanas and the Karana Kayasthas. Those who operate or are
considered experienced to handle these valuable records are known as
Panjikaras (Keeper of the Panjis). A palm-leaf MS of the Karana Kayasthas
is under study and is expected to throw some light on the contemporary
history.
A critical study of these records is yet a desideratum. It is one of the
most important developments in Maithili literature in its earlier period.
At a time when the standard racy country words were developed, the
compilation of Panji seems to have played a very prominent part in the
development of Maithili language. The Panjis, compiled under royal
orders, constitute the glorious chapter of the Maithili literature. Grierson
called it a great achievement of the Maithilas. Though modelled after
Sanskrit, it could not do away with the flambuoyant expressions and
profusion of compounds. The main aim of the Panji was to preserve the
useful knowledge about all the families existing in Mithila. They are
expressed in exact, logical, relevant and concise manner. The language
is dignified and graceful. They are factual records and have been put in
a language which is ordinarily free from sentimental rhetoric. The
following passage may be cited as an example :
“(Panichobha)....daughter’s son of Bhagiratha. Raghu’s sons
Gangadhara, Somadhara. His excellency Chandradhara, Narayana
and Haradatta living in the hut covered with leaves, were the
daughter’s sons of Udayasimha, living in the hut covered with
leaves, of the Oyini family.
.... .The son of Udayasimha leaving in a leaf hut, was the prince
Pratapasimha, daughter’s son of Pushpabhattaka Supana of the
Harisimhapur-Nikuti family, and the daughter’s daughter’s son
of Mahadeva of the Garh-Bishphi family... ....Gondhi’s sons were
Kuladhara and Rajadhara, daughter’s sons of Bhoge of the Supatani
Gangauli family. Bhoge, the son of Dabe was the daughter’s son
of the court-scholar Vidyapati of the Garh Bishphi family....”
(Quoted from Subhadra Jha’s—’The Songs of Vidyapati’
—pp. 16-17)
The Panjis were created to guard against the possibility of marrying
a girl who may not be marriageable according to the Shastras. The Panji,
in accordance with Shastras, prohibits the marriage with the girls of the
following kinds : (i) Sagotra—descended from the same sage from the
father’s side, (ii) Sapindas—within seventh direct descent either from the
maternal or paternal side, (iii) in any case, related by being upto the
seventh from the father’s side and upto the fifth from the mother’s side
in descent, (iv) Issue of grandfathers, both maternal and paternal, and
(v) daughter of the brother of the step mother. Before any Maithila
Brahmana boy or Karana Kayastha could be married the permission of
the Panji-kara must be obtained. This permission is knawn by the name
of Asvajanapatra.
III
JYOTIRISHWAR THAKUR
Jyotirishwar is well known figure in the history of Mithila and his
reputation in Sanskrit literature is second to none in the medieval period.
He belonged to a reputed family of established scholarship. He was the
son of Dhireshwara and grandson of Rameshwara. Jyotirishwar, himself,
was a great Vedic scholar and philosopher, a high court official under
the last great ruler of the Karnata dynasty, Harisimhadeva. He belonged
to the Palli family. He was well-versed in many languages and was an
expert musician. We learn from the VR that the system of Panji had come
to stay in Mithila. The modern researches into the Panji has proved
beyond any shadow of doubt that he was in no way related to Vidyapati.
His work may be placed in the first quarter of the fourteenth century A.
D. when the frequency of contact with the Muslims had fairly increased
as we find a large number of Arabic and Persian words in the VR. Maithili
language had, of course, been influenced by the beautiful forms of
classical Sanskrit since the early Maithili writers were past masters in
Sanskrit. His famous works on erotics, viz. Rangasekhara and Panchasayaka
are in Sanskrit. He was not a simple Vedic priest whose mouth had
frequently to taste the Soma juice; and he was not a pedantic litterateur
either. His Panchasayaka shows that he was a keen student of ars moris
also.
He is known to us for his famous Maithili work Varnanaratnakara
(abbreviated VR), the oldest specimen of Maithili prose. According to
Mm. Haraprasad Shastri, no Bengali or Maithili Mss of that age has yet
been discovered. The VR originally contained 77 Folios but seventeen of
these are now missing; e. g, folio one to nine, and folio 11, 12, 14, 15, 17,
19, 26 and 27. Certain things seem to have been left out and that is evident
after the seventh Kallola, When we find a conglomeration of a large
number of topics. The normal life of the Mithila seems to have been a
peaceful and happy one and the frequent Muslim incursions into the
territory did not seriously affect the daily life of the people. The
vernacular was not neglected by the scholars of Mithila since we find
the Bengali scholars returning to their native land not only with the
knowledge of Smriti and Nyaya but also with the Maithili lyric songs
which had by then naturalised itself in Nepal, Assam and Orissa.
Jyotirishwar is credited with having headed the tradition of Maithili lyrics
later perfected by Umapati, Shanfcaradatta, Vidyapati and others. A gloss
over the works of Jyotirishwar, Umapati, Shankaradatta and of a host of
others will convince of the fact that this was an age of the triumph of
Maithili speech. From now onwards, begins the connected history of
Maithili language and literature.
The VR is a collection of the cliches, readymade materials to be
utilised in an artistic composition. It may be described as a hand-book of
poetic figures and lexicon of connected topics and objects. In those days,
the obligation to follow the accepted convention was “imposed upon
the writer by the rules of rhetoric. It has a variety of topics and is
encyclopaedic in character. The noises and sounds of the city through
playing of all kinds of musical instruments, singing of ballads and songs
connected with Lorika, and the shouts of the people, and all kinds of
seemly and unseemly acts which would come to one’s own sight in a
city with its motley crowd are mentioned in the VR. Many of the
vernacular terms probably still exist with slightly altered form and
meaning. They can only be expected to have sought refuge with the pure
Maithili idiom of the lower castes unaffected by Sanskrit or Hindi. Many
of the vernacular terms of the VR remain obscure even to this day. In
this un-questionably a book of poetic canventions, the author had
undoubtedly to go in for considerable amount of personal research in
making lists of vernacular terms.
There are seven Kallolas or chapters in the VR. Kallola one deals with
the description of the city (nagaravarnana). Kallola two begins with the
description of a hero (nayakavarnana) and then follows the description of
a heroine (nayikavarnana). Kallola three gives an accounts of the royal
court (sthanavarnana). In this connection, we get an account of the
delicacies of medieval Mithila. Kallola four gives the description of seasons
(rituvarnana). In this Kallola we get an account of sixty four Kalas or arts
and all types of erotic terms and postures. His sense of the grotesque
and the humour is well illustrated in the description of Kutitanivarnana,
the description of an old woman acting as a go-between in the loveintrigues.
A pimp must be about a hundred years old, with wrinkles all
over the body, her hair as white as conchshell, her head high), her body
without flesh, her cheeks all shrunken, her teeth all fallen. Kallola five
gives an account of the march of conquest of a King (Prayanaka-varnana)
and the description of the forests under this head reminds one of the
Rigvedic hymns to Aranyani, the spirit of the forest. Beauties of a garden
are narrated in a poetic manner. Kallola six opens with the description of
a Bhata but concerns itself with the gentle art of poetry. Music, dancing
and singing are described in all their details. Kallola seven begins with a
description of the cemetery (smasanavarnana). Under this Kallola, we get
a description of the eightyfour Siddhas and various other details; of the
various avataras (incarnation) of the epics and the Puranas, Agamas,
Smritis etc. We further get a list of seventytwo Rajput clans and of
countries like Khurasan and Gandhara.
Under these Kallolas, there is a description of wide variety of subjects
though it is not possible to go through the entire lists here. Under Kallola
three we have a description of the morning, noon, evening and then of
darkness, moon and sky. In Kallola four, there is a description of sixteen
great gifts, eighteen kinds of gems,, thirty-two kinds of semi-precious
stones, various kinds of clothes, tents, etc. In Kallola five there is a
description of elephants of eighty kinds, horses of twentyfour breeds,
hunting dogs of ten breeds etc., In Kallola six, there is a description of
wrestling match, of the various kinds of dances and dancing movements
and graces and a list of twentyseven kinds of lutes. Besides these
descriptions, there is an account of ships and river craft, an enumeration
of ceremonies connected with marriage, twelve kinds of sons, eight kinds
of nayikas, of the vanikas etc. The description of the vanikas is interesting
as it gives a list of articles sold by them. Then there is a description of
thieves, an elaborate account of the surroundings of a fort, an account of
a physician, account of boat and ships and so on.
It is a compendium of life and culture in medieval India in general
and Mithila in particular. Judging even from the date of copying of the
MSS (1507 A.D.), it is fairly old for a work in modern Indo-Aryan speech.
The work, as it is, reminds us of the Manasollasa and Aini Akbari. In his
introduction to the VR Dr. S. K. Chatterji has rightly observed—”The all
embracing scope of the work is a noteworthy thing and we are
exceedingly thankful to the scholar and the poet, who had the happy
idea in his mind of preparing a book for the guidance of poets and
narrators in varnacular. Jyotirishwar Thakur must have been a man with
a whole-some all round interest in life... .His catholic observation... .did
not consider any aspect of life with which he had to come into contact as
too low or beneath his notice. He takes us through the city, and gives us
a little glimpses into the ugliness that was in medieval Indian city... he
tells us what knaves and beggars we meet, what low and vulgar fellows
congregate and shout and jostle and move in dirt and filth; and he gives
us also romantic description of nobles, heroes and the beautiful heroines,
perfect in their personal charms and accomplishments. He shows us
round the court, and tells us who is who in the throng.... He is a poet by
instinct....and the quiet dignity of his sweet Maithili tongue gives him
an additional charm. His sketches have the stamp of poetic genius.... the
light of a broad intellectual sympathy shines through everything.. . .He
had a fine sense of humour... .He gives us an epitome of the life in a
Hindu court in the early part of the fourteenth century A. D.....He did
not neglect the life of the countryside.... The Kaleidoscopic view of life
in north-eastern India of the fourteenth century A. D. as represented in
the VR affords a valuable commentary on the epigraphic and other
literary records of the contemporary and earlier periods... .All this goes
to make the work a document of first rate importance in the study of
culture in early and mid-medieval times in northern India.”
From the linguistic and literary point of view, the VR is one of the
most important and authentic works of the Indo-Aryan language. Words
and forms have their parallels in contemporary language of Bengal. As
the oldest available document in the language, its importance can hardly
be gainsaid. Maithili philology can be studied on the basis of this work.
Its language is more archaic than anything we find in the current poems
of Vidyapati; which itself is archaic enough for modern Maithili. It
appears that the Maithili speech in the time of Jyotirishwar was a far
simpler idiom. That was the age of the triumph of Maithili speech as we
find the people making conscious and deliberate efforts to develop the
language and literature. The power of description and observation in
the VR is unique and that makes it a source of literary pleasure. It is the
earliest specimen of rimed prose. The VR supplied the early narrative
poets their technical outfit. From the available MSS at our disposal, it
may be inferred that originally there was more unity in the plan of this
work. The interest of the work lies both in the profusion of its details
and in the fact that it includes descriptions of almost everything worth
describing in human life. He is in love with all aspects of humanity. This
stuccato Maithili prose is the earliest, and the longest specimen of the early new
Indo-Aryan prose. The literary acumen of the author is manifest at many
places. The description of mythical figures Kapalikas, Aghoris, Kinnaras,
Mlechas, Vidyadharas, desert, ocean and mountain is marvellous.
Vidyapati’s description of the prostitutes in his Kirtilata shows how he
was influenced by the writings of Jyotirishwar. The VR was studied with
all seriousness in Mithila, Nepal and Bengal as late as the sixteenth
century A. D. Jyotirishwar is a name to conjure with in the history of
Maithili language and literature and with him we stand on a solid footing.
Our author bears the title Kavisekharacharya. His interest in things
human was all embracing. His sense of beauty is found in his description
of the moon whereas his sense of terrible can be seen in his description
of darkness. His poetic vision may be gleaned through his comparisons
of smile to the rippling waves on the ocean of milk moved by southern
breeze. Few examples of the stock comparisons and figures are given
below :—
(i) “as if Kamadeva came after conquering the world and she is her
banner; as if Indra became thousand eyed to see her beauty, and
Brahma made himself fourheaded; as if for embracing her one
Krishna became four armed.. ..”
( ii ) “the smile ripples along like the waves on the ocean of milk
moved by southern breeze”.
(iii) ‘’such a night as was like a wall of lamp black moistened with oil
(31 a)”.
(iv) “Teeth like pearls scattered in Vermillion (18 a)”.
(v) “Fetched such curds as were like the silt-mud taken out from a
lake of nectar”—(28 a).
(vi) “The waves of the strings of lighting, through that idea as to the
path and direction is coming” (31 a).
(vii) “the elephants that were maddened with ichoral flow, and the
pine trees which were bruised by their tusks, from these the resin
that exuded,—its scent, what was it like ? as if incense was burnt
in the shrines of woodland deities” (50a).
(viii) “Like the conchshell bangle of the heroine in the form; like the
waterpot of the initiated in the form of sky; like the brilliance of
jewel Chandrakanta; like the group leader of the stars; like the
waves of the ocean of love; like the life of the jungle of kumud
flowers; like the sign in the forehead of the western mountain;
like the salvation ground of darkness; like the good name of king
Cupid; like the tonicfor the eyes of the world; thus has the moon
appeared”,
(ix ) “Paleness of the cloud; stainlessness of the moon; rows of geese;
cleanliness of water; wave of small fish, flower of Kasha (a kind
of grass); blossoming of lilies, drying up of muds, bending of
paddy plants; acuteness of the sun; moving out of travellers;
exuberance of Kings; preparation for marching; sprouting of lotus
stem; increase of fishes; meeting of Chakravaka; decrease of water;
brilliance of the sky; notice of the autumn; free from heat and in
nature cold”.
(x) “The perspiration of the foot soldior, with that the road became
muddy”.
Besides being a prose-writer, Jyotirishwar Thakur was an eminent
poet and dramatist. He wrote his famous Dhurtasmagamanataka in
Maithili. The importance of this work lies in the fact that here we get the
earliest extant specimens of the Maithili poetry. The chaste diction and
elegant handling of metre are indicative of his gifted talents as a poet.
The details of the drama will be discussed at the proper place in this
volume and its literary merit will be judged therein. Its importance lies
in the introduction of Maithili songs of which we have at least twelve
here in this drama. Though lacking in the poetic beauty of Vidyapati,
they are yet interesting and significant. The influence of Jayadeva is
perceptible but the mastery of rhythm and the use of chaste Maithili
diction give it the stamp of a language that had got the nourishment at
the hands of Kavisekharacharya. Along with the ragas and talas, the names
of the author and patron are also mentioned in keeping with the tradition
of the earlier Charyapadas. The later Maithili poets also bear this trait.
Kavisekharacharya had two distinct styles and that is evident from the VR
and the Dhurtasamagamanataka. We have the examples of rimed and
stuccato prose in the former and simple poetry in the latter, the language
of which bears affinities with Umapati, Shankaradatta and Vidyapati
and the later Maithili poetry. Some aspects of social life of medieval
Mithila can be gleaned through the Dhurtasamagamanataka. Our author
was fully aquainted with the Arabic and Persian words, which are found
in the VR.
IV
UMAPATI UPADHAYAYA :
Besides the earliest extant of Maithili poetry and prose of
Jyotirishwar Thakur, we have some of the best specimens of lyrics of
Umapati Upadhyaya, a contemporary of Harisimhadeva. He was the
author of the famous drama—Parijataharananataka (to be discussed in
detail at proper place in this volume). Here we have twentyone lyrical
songs in Maithili. The songs stand unique as the finished products of
chaste Maithili diction. Umapati’s contribution to the growth of Maithili
is unique as he set to music some of his songs, full of imageries and
natural picturesqueness. He has described Harisimhadeva of Mithila as
Hindupati and has shown his superiority over the Muslim invaders. His
Parijataharananataka has been edited by Grierson (JBORS, III, pp. 20-90).
Umesh Mishra and Sukumar Sen have placed Umapati before Vidyapati
on the basis of linguistic and literary data and this view has been
supported by B. K. Chatterji. The archaic features of Umapati have
similarities and affinities with Vidyapati and the unity of ideas,
expression and thought is already there. His songs have a freshness of
all their own and his poetic genius will be evident from the following
specimens :
I
( i ) “The dawn hath appeared in the east, the whole night hath
flowed away, the moon hath disappeared in the sky. The water
lily hath closed, and yet, O lady thy lotus face is unopened”.
( ii ) “Thy countenance is like unto the lotus and thine eyes the dark
blue lily. Thy lip resembleth the carnation (the Madhuri flower
of a deep carmine colour). The whole body hath been created of
flowers, why, then, is thy heart of stone ?”
(iii) “Because thou faintest, though wearest not the bracelet of thine
arm; and (thou complainest that) that the necklace over thy heart
is too heavy. Yet the burden of scorn which is weighty as a
mountain though throwest not off. Strange are thy ways”.
(iv) ‘’Give up thy waywardness, and gaze upon me joyfully, O Lady.
Let sunrise be the end of thy scorn. Saith the wise Umapati, the
King of Kings, the lord of the Hindus knoweth every sentiment”.
II
(i) “O proud one, if thou art angry at my fault, be appeased and
show not wrath.”
(ii) “The brow is a bow, and thy glances arrows. String thy bow and
strike me, O moon-faced one”.
(iii) ‘’Consider thy twin bossom as a great mountain and bind me to
it; Lady, with thine arms for bonds”.
(iv) “With what, act of submission wilt thou be pleased ? Place thy
lotus feet upon my body (and they will be) an ornament (and
not a penance)”.
( v ) “The wise Umapati sayeth a true saying. The lord of the Hindus
knoweth the mother of the Hindus.”.
Umapati was a successful dramatist and a poet. In some of his songs,
God is shown as entreating soul to abandon itself to him. His lyrics are
superb and sweet. Henceforward the literary language, nourished by
Jyotirishwar and Umapati, crossed the frontier of Tirhut. After the
Muslim conquest of Tirhut in 1324 A. D., Nepal had become one of the
main resorts of scholars of Mithila and Bengal. Maithili literary style
and diction were carried over to Nepal and cultivated there with full
vigour both by Maithila and Newari scholars. Vidyapati, no doubt,
followed the footsteps of Umapati and in course of time the Vaishnavas
of Bengal avidly cultivated the diction of Maithila poet.
(V)
SHANKARADATTA
The last great ruler of the Karnata dynasty, Harisimhadeva, was a
great patron of art and letter. In his reign flourished not only Jyotirishwar
and Umapati but, also a host of other poets, scholars and men of repute.
Shankaradatta, a Karana Kayastha, was a devout Vaishnava and a
renowned scholar and a poet. His literary products are yet in the limbo
of oblivion but some of his stray songs are found here and there, from
which it may be deduced that he was a Vaishnava by faith and composed
songs in honour of Krishna whom he addresses as Madhava.
Shankaradatta, though little known, finds a place in the galaxy of those
renowned authors who contributed to the development of early Maithili
writings and flourished in the triumphant age of Maithili speech. One of
his Maithili songs is collected in the Mithila Darpana of Ras Behari Das.
Vidyapati mentions, in his Purushapariksha, another Karana Kayastha
saint ‘Bodhidasa’. Whether he was a poet or not, it is difficult to say but
his connection with the family of Shridharadasa is a factor to be reckoned
with. His story is preserved in the Purushapariksha. It is said that
Bodhidasa went out for a dip in the Ganges but before he could reach
the destination, he got tired and urged upon the mother Ganges to receive
him and his will was fulfilled. We have not been able to do any
remarkable research on pre-Vidyapati Maithili and hence nothing definite
can be said in the present state of our knowledge. There are about fifty
Maithili songs in the Prakritpaingalam, a work believed to have been
compiled in the eastern provinces of India. Chandeshwar and
Haribrahma (former’s vassal) find mention here and the menus
prescribed in one of the songs remind us of the typical Maithili diet
(prevalant even today) consisting of rice and fish. Prakri-tpainglam,
undoubtedly, contains some of the pre-Vidyapati Maithili songs. Earliest
form of spoken Maithili, say the spoken language of the whole of eastern
India, can be seen in Vidyapati’s Kirtilata and Kirtipataka, It was known
as Maithili Avahatta.
CHAPTER—V
Age of Efflorescence
VIDYAPATI THAKUR
(i) Ancestry :
Vidyapati was in the family of Maithila Brahmanas of Kasyapa Gotra
of Garh Bishaphi. An inscription of one of his ancestors, Karmaditya, on
a temple of Haihatta Devi at Habidih, is dated in La. Sam. 213. He was a
minister. His son Devaditya was a minister of peace and war and his
seven sons were decorated with royal titles. Devaditya’s eldest son,
Vireshwara, compiled the Paddhati of the most important Samskaras of
the Samvedic Brahmanas of Mithila and his nephew, Ramadatta, that of
the Yajurvedics. Ramadatta’s father, Ganeshwara, was the
Mahasamantadhipati (Lord of the feudatories). Dhireshwara, great
grandfather of Vidyapati, was a famous Nibandhakara. Vireshwara’s son,
Chandeshwar wrote his comprehensive compendium of Hindu law in
seven books called Ratnakaras. The Paddhatis of Vireshwara and
Ramadatta are followed in Mithila even to-day and the Nibandhas of
Chandeshwar still form the basis of the social and religious life of Mithila.
It may be noted that so many of them were members of the family of our
poet. Vidyapati was the son of Ganapati Thakur and grandson of
Jayadatta, He was born at Bishaphi in the second half of the fourteenth
century A. D. It is not possible to suggest any exact date in the present
state of our knowledge.
(ii) Date of Vidyapati:
The date of Vidyapati is a disputed point in the annals of Mithila
and all attempts to fix the date of this great poet have met with practically
little or no success. The confusion, created by chro-nological irregularities
on account of the variance of the La. Sam, the Saka and the Vikrama eras,
still persists and we have hardly any idefinite datum to start with. Since
the evidences regarding the date of Vidyapati are conflicting, it is difficult
to assign any particular date to our poet. It was in La. Sam. 293 (—Saka
1324—1402 A. D.) that Sivasimha ascended the throne. Since Saka era is
also given there and there is no difference of opinion about that era, we
have taken it as authentic date and its equivalent 1402 A. D. as the starting
point of Sivasimha’s reign. Vidyapati was an older contemporary of
Pakshadhara Mishra who is said to have copied Vishnupurana in 1464-
65 A. D. Only few dates of the Oinwara history are recorded in the Saka
era, on the evidence of which we can assign a definite period toour poet.
In Saka 1324(—1402-3 A. D.) Vidyapati was alive and Sivasimha seems
to have been an independent ruler. It was as an independent ruler, that
Sivasimha made a grant. In Saka 1375 (— 1453 A. D.), Vidyapati was
alive when Narasimha was ruling. This is the first ever recorded Saka era in
the epigraphy of Mithila. From two coins of Bhairavasimha (son of
Narasimha) of the Oinwara dynasty, we learn that he ascended the throne
in Saka 1397 (—1475-76 A. D.). Since Vidyapati was alive in the reign of
Bhairavasimha, we can safely say that from 1402 to 1475 A. D., he was an
active participant in the Oinwara Court. These two dates should act as lamp
posts in our endeavour to fix the date of Vidyapati. In view of these
facts, we can place Vidyapati somewhere between 1360 A. D. and 1480
A. D. (vide-R. K. Chaudhary, Mithila in the Age of Vidyapati, pp. 13—20).
(iii) Life, works and his relation with Court of Mithila
The political condition of Mithila at the time of Vidyapati was one
of uncertainty. The Hindu kings were often trying to regain their
independence, which was threatened by the Muslim invaders as a result
of which some sort of trouble was anticipated daily. While escaping the
indignity of the Muslim rulers, they stood in restless subservience with
the exception of Sivasimha and Bhairavasimha and they do not appear
to have regained their independence. The Brahmana ministers of such
kings were mainly interested in the administrative and social affairs while
the rulers themselves, with few exceptions, were busy enjoying sensual
pleasures. Though attached to the Oinwara Court, Vidyapati’s father
seems to have been a man of gentle retiring disposition, aloof from the
court intrigue and generally unconcerned with his own career or that of
his son. Though we have no recorded evidence of Vidyapati’s childhood
and youth, we may infer from his family background that he must have
been drilled in Sanskrit. It seems that in his early life he was not able to
secure the patronage of the chief of the royal family, nor were there many
who would appreciate his poetry. It is why in the opening verses of
Kirtilata, he deplores the dearth of good people who could reward a poet
adequately. He says—”In the Kali age poems are composed in every
house, there are their hearers in the villages, critics are found in towns,
but patrons are difficult to be found in the world”—He must have
struggled for existence in the beginning of his career.
Through his father’s influence, he hovered for a time on the fringes
of the court and received his first commission from Kirtisimha, who
entrusted to him the task of composing Kirtilata, after the prince avenged
the murder of his father. Through Kirtilata and Kirtipataka, his genius as
a poet came to be recognised and after the death of Kirtisimha, he came
to live in the court of Devasimha. The above noted two works were
written in heroic style (Virarasa) and for this purpose he adopted the
Maithili-Apabhramsa. He declares his Apabhramsa as agreeable to
everybody. While at the court of Devasimha, he received much favour
from prince Sivasimha and his wife Lakhima. Purushapariksha was written
when Devasimha was alive. Under Sivasimha, Vidyapti’s natural genius
for erotic compositions found an excellent outlet. He began to compose
songs in Maithili and became immortal on account of such compositions.
In the court of Sivasimha, he enjoyed considerable influence. After the
mysterious disappearnce of Sivasimha, he was left without a patron and
he became devoted to the almighty.
Vidyapati wrote a number of works, like Kirtilata, Kirtipataka,
Bhuparikrama, Purushapariksha, Likhanavali, Saivasarvasvasara,
Gangavakyavali, Vibhagasara, Durgabhaktitarangini, Varshakritya,
Gayapatalaka, Manimanjari, and Go rakshavijaya, (both dramas),
Danavakyavali, Vyadhibhaktitarangini and many others under the order,
or in compliance with the request of various Oinwara rulers. After the
disappearance of Sivasimha, the poet looked after Lakhima till she burnt
herself with Sivasimha’s effigy made of leaves. From Raja-banauli, where
he was staying with Lakhima in the court of Raja Puraditya Dronwar,
the poet came to live in village Padma, the capital of Padmasimha
(younger brother of Sivasimha). After his death, the poet lived with his
wife, Viswasadevi. He enjoyed the patronage of Narasimha and his wife,
Dhiramati, and of Bhairavasimha. It was at the instance of the latter that
the poet wrote Durgabhakitarangini and after that he retired from the life
of a courtier. He became immortal on account of his songs in Maithili,
now commonly known as Padavali. Without having enjoyed the
patronage of Sivasimha, our poet would not have been a master poet.
After Sivasimha, he looked towards the almighty for help and guidance.
Radha and Krishna became divine beings and the poet began to sing in
their praise craving for protection. He grew serious towards the various
problems of life and composed songs in honour of Vishnu, Durga, Ganga,
Shiva and other Gods in a penitent mood. He continued composing
devotional poetry till the end of his life. He gave up the habit of
associating names of his human patrons with his own in his poems. Their
concluding lines were no more meaningless expression but they now
became the expression of self-submission. He died on the northern bank
of the Ganges and the site still stands indicated near the Vidyapatinagar
railway station of the north-eastern railway. His temple and tanks are
still extant at Bhawanipur (Darbhanga) and Rajabanauli respectively.
The days of Vidyapati were the days of the glory of the University
of Mithila, when there was a great interchange of thought between
Mithila and Bengal. As a scion of the great family of distinguished
scholars, Vidyapati was a renowned seer and a teacher. It is evident that
he taught students as well and thereby added lustre to the already
existing glorious achievements of the university of Mithila. From the
colophon to a MS of the Brahmanasarvasva, we learn that this MS was
dedicated to him by one of his students. It was in recognition of his
scholarship that he had received the grant of village Bisphi (Darbhanga)
from Sivasimha.
The ancestors of Vidyapati made notable contributions in the field
of politics and culture and when our poet entered the scene, he developed
intimate relation with Sivasimha and Lakhima. It is Vidyapati who has
made Sivasimha immortal. The type of perfect man idealised in the
Purushapariksha is represented by Sivasimha according to Vidyapati.
Vidyapati says—”My poetry flows at the contemplation of feet of
Lakhima Devi (the Queen)”—He was a scholar statesman, a man of action
and a firm believer in truth. He was at home with the vast store of Sanskrit
learning and his versatility and erudition stand exhibited by the number
of works in Sanskrit he has left behind. His wide outlook took him out
of the narrow conclaves of the so called specialised nibandhakaras and
scholars of his time. He was a humanist and universalist to the core and
it is catholicity of interest that marks him out as one of the greatest
intellectuals of his age. As a seer and true representative of his age he
felt the pulse of his people and keeping in view the pressing needs of the
time, he adopted and popularised his mother tongue. It was through the
medium of Maithili that he communicated his message to the people at
large. He was the real representative of his age. Though a courtier, he
was a lawgiver and a social reformer. He was made the Rajapandita by
Sivasimha and honoured with various titles. He says—”Sivasimha, the
lord of Panchagauda, took me to his court through his kindness”. Through
him Maithili language attracted the attention of scholars of various parts
of India and his sweet lyrics became the eternal heritage of the vast Indian
culture. He had two wives. By his first wife, he had two sons, Harapati
and Narapati and two daughters. By his second wife, he had one son
Vacaspati and two daughters. His descendants are still living at Sauratha
(Darbhanga) and from his daughter’s side at Mahishi (Saharsa). Since
his songs found a prominene place in the Vaishnava Padavali of Bengal,
Vidyapati was taken to be a Bengali. Messrs. Rajkrishna Mukherji and
G.A. Grierson questioned the propriety of that claim and established the
fact for good that Vidyapati was a Maithila. Many of the later Vaishnava
poets have described the meeting of Vidyapati and Chandidasa but that
fact also stands rejected by the modern researches.
(iv) Vidyapatl’s faith
Vaishnavism has been one of the most important cults of India and
its history goes back to hoary antiquity. The Vaishnavism as a cult was
in full swing in eastern India in the twelfth century A. D. when Dhoyi,
Umapati, Govardhana, Jayadeva and many others composed many
verses on Radhakrishna. Most of these poems are now collected in
Shridhara Dasa’s Saduktikarnamrita. All these poets intensified the
devotional strain of a class of mystics. Mithila, though a great centre of
orthodox religion and culture, was not totally out of Vaishnavite
influence. The people were acquainted with the Vaishnavite thought.
Jayadeva exercised a good deal of influence on the growth and
development of Vaishnava thought in Mithila. The Parijataharana of
Umapati is a drama of Krishna’s sport with the Gopis and it was written
in Maithili in the first quarter of the fourteenth century A. D.
Govindadatta’s Govindamanasollasa is another example of literature on
Krishna legend. Umapati unleashed a force of Krishna legend to be
followed by others in literature. He paved the way for the future rich
traditions of Maithili love poetry. There is no doubt that Vidyapati was
greatly indebted to Jayadeva and Umapati. Vacaspati Mishra, in his
Tithinirnaya, starts with an invocation of the highest being while most of
his works are begun with an obeisance to Hari or Krishna. Vardhamana,
in his Dandaviveka, has also referred to Radhakrishna. All these point to
the existence of a good amount of literary output on the Krishna legend
before the emergence of Vidyapati on the scene. Maithili has for centuries
been celebrated for the graceful lyrics and the most famous name in the
language is Vidyapati whose songs were adopted by the Vaishnava
reformer Chaitanya.
Vidyapati was not only aware of such a rich heritage in his own
homeland but was also conversant with the different ideals, then
preached. Krishna legend became the vehicle of his poetic excellence.
He was well-acquainted with the Vaishnava religion. The Bhuparikrama
and the Purushapariksha amply demonstrate his inclination towards
Vaishnavism. Even when he was completely free, he did not devote his
energy in writing something original on Shiva or Shakti, rather he busied
himself in copying the Bhagavata with great care. His only solace must
have been the fact that the copying of the above MS would give him
opportunity of refreshing his association with the Bhagavatalila. It will
be evident from his poems also that he wrote without any dictation from
his masters, he wrote songs whenever bearing on the Krishna-legend.
The Bhakti movement of the medieval age took its inspiration from
the Bhagavata-Purana, and the story of the Parijataharana of Umapati is
also somewhat based on it (X. 59). A host of reformers preached a
thorough reform in the conventional form of worship because that was
shaken to its foundation by the impact of Islam. The contemporary
reformers influenced Vidyapati. The Puranic influence brought the
Krishnalila on the forefront and the advent of Islam acted as a catalytic
agent which brought the loose elements together and gave birth to
Vaishnava poetry. On the basis of the Bhagavata and the Brahmavaivarta
Puranas, the conception of love was interpreted as a mode of play. It
was supposed to supply the creative power, though to a rational mind it
appears like an adventure into the uncharted future from the certainties
of his past and present. The greatest defect was that it did not overcome
the philosophy of illusion. The only difference was that old wine was
now kept in a new bottle. The basis of medieval religious reform was
Krishna-lila. Lila in the form of sports was first popularised by Jayadeva.
Through Lila, Radha-krishna legend was brought down to the level of
the people. The whole theory of love came to be based upon the concept
as existed between the Gopis and Krishna. Grierson is of opinion that it
dealt categorically with the relation of soul to God under the form of
love which Radha bore to Krishna. Here Radha represented the soul
and Krishna the deity. The immortality of Radha-krishna songs is an
eloquent expression of Vidyapati’s Bhakti. By means of lila-bhakli, our
poet wishes to attain communion with Hari.
The feeling of devotion or bhaktirasa comprises the following
principal sentiments: viz. Shanta (Quiescent), dasya (relation of a servant),
Sakhya (friendly), Vatsalya (Filial) and Madhura (sweet). The greatest depth
of emotion is reached in the sweet sentiment. An intimate personal tie is
established between Krishna and the devotee in this mental attitude.
The Madhura or the Sringararasa is pronounced to be the sweetest in the
Vaishnava faith. In this respect the Vaishnava poets were indebted to
Sanskrit literature. The sweet sentiment between man and woman was
recognised as the dominant influence as early as the Upanishadas.
Sringararasa was capable of making the universe permeated by sweetness.
Vidyapati took to madhurarasa as it included all rasas. Love and sweetness
were the remarkable features of his poetry. His Bhakti was based on
madhurarasa. It is to Radhakrishna that he diverted his attention for
everything and it was his belief that people could attain their object by
pinning all faith in Radhakrishna. His ultimate faith is evinced by the
fact that he, in his last days, returned to Hari for guidance, nay for
deliverance. It was devoid of all rituals. His influence on later Vaishnava
literature would not have been so great had he been a poet of gross
sensualism. In Chandidasa, the erotic passions of Krishna and Radha
play a very important part. As a poet of pleasure, as Rabindranath called
him, Vidyapati, in his early youth, wrote entirely secular lyrics, no doubt,
but his study of the Puranas and other Vaishnava literature
enabled him to identify himself with the spirit of the time. As a court
poet, he must have written for the pleasure of his masters, but there are
also poems without bhanitas where the lila has been sung and if not all,
at least these songs epitomize his Vaishnavite leanings. About 195 such
poems are there (vide K. Mitra and B. B. Mazumdar, Vidyapati, Nos. 467-
569, 719-57). Dr. Subhadra Jha says— “... Now Radha and Krishna became
divine beings and the poet began to sing in their praise.... the concluding
lines became the expression of something spiritual ...”
(The Songs of Vidyapati, pp. 23-24).
Vidyapati believed in the unity of Godhead. He conceived of Shakti
as the nourisher and sustainer of earth and life. His description of the
physical charms of Radha is a clear indication of the fact that he was
impressed by the Shakti form of Radha. He did not distinguish between
Gods. He was of opinion that all Gods, with their different forms and
shapes, were nothing but the embodiment of one Almighty, and it
mattered little by which name we called them. Vidyapati has been
generally described as a Shaiva by a host of scholars and conservative
Maithila scholars fastidiously cling to this point. They hold the view
that since his ancestors were Shaivaso he should also be a Shaiva. Had
he been a devout Shaiva, he would not have compared female breasts to
Shiva in his poems. This does not sound logical.
All poems written on palm-leaves, hitherto discovered, are purely
Radhakrishna songs and not one of them deals with Shiva. When he wrote for
spiritual satisfaction, he wrote songs on Krishna. He was a conscious
poet and a finished scholar whose similes were brilliant poetic feats.
The ideals of sensuality and lust are redeemed by those that are platonic
and spiritual. According to Dr. D. C. Sen, he moves all the day in the
sunny groves and floral meadows of the earth, but in the evening rises
high and overtakes his fellow poets. He occupies a unique positson.
Looking through the vista of centuries we see him standing in his own
pure light as the guide and saviour of Vaishnava faith. He founded no
sect and laid down no dogmatic creed. He inspired Chandidasa and
Chaitanya and this influence has been rightly-acknowledged by all. He
was the first of old master singers whose short religious poems exercised
such potent influence on the faiths of eastern India. His ultimate hope
lay in Krishna. Whenever he felt desperate and became morose, he put
his own feelings in the mouth of Radha and painted the picture of
helplessness. In such a state of mind he always remained pre-occupied
with this thought and concentrated his feelings on Radhakrishna. Unless
one is inspired by a particular faith one cannot show his poetic excellence.
A close scrutiny will reveal to us two types of padas in Vidyapati: (i)
Gross sensual type which he wrote for pleasing his masters and (ii) highly
spiritual and intellectual type which inspired the later Vaishnava poets.
Charm and grace of poetry have been the subject of literary criticism,
but his platonic and spiritual themes have been the basis of higher
thinking of the Vaishnava philosophers. Examples of filial relationship
are not lacking in Vidyapati. Vidyapati’s wailing for Madhava is a sign
of poet’s feeling for the hero. Poems without any reference to the patrons,
are devoted to the Radhakrishna legend. Vaishnavism was his personal
acquisition through which he wished to cross the ocean of mortality.
His aim was ultimate salvation. While he aimed at Moksha, Chaitanya
did not care for any such thing. Here lies the distinction between
Vidyapati and Chaitanya. It is true that Vidyapati also identified and
found himself lost in Krishna and ultimately sought refuge in Him, but
with an eye on salvation. In the last stage of his life, his appeal was
confined rather exclusively to a longing for salvation.
For his mental satisfaction, he composed poems on Radhakrishna
whose picture is so deeply engrafted on his mind that he always liked to
see Krishna palpably before him. His life-long observation of Krishna’s
picture failed to satisfy his longing eyes, which remained wet with
wistfulness. His constant faith in sin and other allied conventional
philosophy is part and parcel of his Vaishnava songs; and while praying
for salvation, he frankly states that throughout his life he remained
preoccupied with amassing wealth by sinful means; who can relieve him
of all such sinful actions? The wealth, thus amassed, was enjoyed by all,
but on the day of judgement there was no other alternative but to
remember his old friend Hari, who is kind and destroyer of sin. The
reason why his Vaishnava songs were not popular in Mithila is to be
sought in the innate conservative outlook. Their popularity would have
meant the end of a class who thrived on the possession of the so called
spiritual knowledge and who kept a tight hold over the credulity of the
people. Checking the growth of Vaishnava faith and songs stunted the
growth of Maithili literature. Vidyapati seems to have been a Vaishnava
at heart, but being a believer in the unity of Godhead, he wrote other
things simply to maintain his position in the court and the society. As a
poet of hope, he had immense faith in the potentialities of man. N.N.
Das calls him a Vastutantravadi (a realist, Vide, Vidyapati Kavyaloka, pp.l-
24). To him, love was God. (Cf. R. K. Chaudhary, ‘Mithila in the Age of
Vidyapati’).
(v) As a Poet
As a poet of love, he succeeded like a successful florist, in presenting
a beautiful garland of songs, the priceless heritage of which has never
been forgotten. His poems and songs were not only one of the earliest
delights of Rabindranath but he even had the privilege of setting one of
them to music. The poignant and deep feelings of separation are unique,
Radha’s love attainment at a particular moment reaches perfection to a
degree unheard of, so much so that the poet pictures Viparitarati in the
coming of a pralaya (deluge). According to Dr. D. C. Sen, Vidyapati, in
the brilliance of his metaphors and similes, in the choice of expressions
and in the higher flights of his poetic fancy, overshadows all vernacular
poets and Chandidasa is no match for him. His lyrics are rich in imagery
and many of his poems seem to be a mere string of similes.
Throughout his long life, he was engaged in literary activity.His
purely literary works (like the Padavali, Dramas and Kavyas) are things
of beauty. Of course, his compilations show the extent of his erudition
but it is as a poet that he is esteemed and has been remembered through
centuries by the people. His influence on the poetical composition of the
neighbouring provinces is immense and immeasurable. Through
Chaitanya, his songs travelled to Assam and Orissa and in Bengal they
came to be written in mongrel language. The language of his songs
became the vehicle of poetical expression. Vidyapati had the unique
distinction of inspiring the poets of Bengal, Assam, Nepal and Orissa.
Vidyapati was a poet born on the sacred soil of Mithila, sanctified by
Janaka and Yajnavalkya and was instrumental in making Maithili the
vehicle of literary language throughout the whole of north-eartern India.
He was the poet who made this hallowed land of Sita overflow with his
rare melody and made us realise that poetry was an integral part of life
and not a mere adornment of it. He laid stress on the creative and
utilitarian side of learning. He made Maithili a polished language capable
of expressing subtlest meanings and all shades of thought. He was the
first great poet of the modern Indo-Aryan language and his sweet lyrics
had a wide universal appeal. His tradition was carried out by Mira Bai
and Suradas in the west and Chaitanya and Shankaradeva in the east.
No aspect of human life escaped his notice. He was well known among
his contemporaries.
His songs are brilliant poetic feats. They at once cultivate the ear,
and the boldness of colours in the pictures, presented to the mind, dazzles
the eyes. They present a strange combination of earthly and heavenly.
As one of the earliest poets of Apabhramsa, he writes some charming
mellifluous lyrics and his intrinsic greatness is yet to be assessed in a
proper perspective. In many ways, he is a unique poet. His lyrics have
become a part of a whole people for more than five centuries now in a
way in which no other poet has permeated the lives of the people.
Vidyapati has become the very life blood of the Maithili speaking people
in a manner, which is unparalleled. Writing in the ‘desila bayana’ he drew
forth such soul entrancing strains from his native language that acquired
for it not only an acknowledged literary status but also made it a rival to
the classical language. On account of its staple being the colloquial speech,
his language has a remarkable modern quality and with its sweetness,
his songs never forfeit their singing quality. The rich stream of his lyrical
poetry has flowed into tributaries and replenished them to such an extent
that in course of time some of the tributaries have become more important
than the main stream.
To the Indian literature of his age, Vidyapati’s songs were new. They
were distinct from the formal poems and they broke with the standard
poetic convention. Though writing through the medium of Maithili, he
imbued Sanskrit imagery with such a tender grace as to enchant not
only the learned but also the rustic villagers. Some of his images do appear
to be the echoes of Jayadeva and other Sanskrit poets. Most of the images
of Vidyapati have a freshness and individuality about them. In their
profusion and boldness, his images are unique since they are drawn
from the whole contemporary life, mythology, literature, business, law,
court, nature etc. No image was too low or too sublime if it came pat to
his purpose, while some of the images are quite fanciful. His songs are
meant to be sung. Though apparently unconnected, his songs are
consistent in them like the various parts of T. S. Eliot’s “Waste Land.”
His metaphors and similes are guided by the conventions of Sanskrit.
Chakora, bee, lotus, lion, gold, antelope, pomegranate, nectar, arrow, Rahu,
moon, Khanjana, lightening, trunk of a plantain, tree, sriphala, malaya,
bimba, prabala etc. are the commonest comparisons. Narendranath Das
and Shivanandan Thakur have shown how his numerous poems echo
Sanskrit writers and how in many cases he has gone beyond them.
Instances of non-conventional similes can be seen in the song of the
marriage of Vasanta, in the comparison of conjugal union to worshipping;
in comparing a woman’s breast to Shiva; in the comparison of a necklace
with the currents of river Ganga or when the Viparitarati is pictured as
the coming of pralaya. Lover is compared to Rahu, elephant, lion, hunter
etc. and the beloved to moon, or to the lotus leaf or to deer or to bird
respectively. As a successful craftsman, he is a poet of emotion and ideas.
He gives some of his most poignant and deepest feelings in simple
language unadorned with any figure of speech. His gift of extraordinary
sensibility and his power to express it in musical and artistic language
make him supreme as a poet. The use of sexual image in a devotional
poem is the height of boldness. The geometrical image in a love poem of
Vidyapati is indicative of his mastery over the literary art :
“Now and again a side long look,
Along her lashes its shy curve took.”
His lyrics too are dramatic. They seem to arise from specific situations
and they are the impassioned utterances of specific characters
characterised by abruptness and flexibility of tone. Though not a poetic
drama in the sense of Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda Vidyapati has certain
dramatic elements in the Padavali. It illuminates the great romance, but
avoids, all sense of gathering drama (cf. R. K. Choudhary, ‘Geetinatyakara
Vidyapati’).
As a poet of love, Vidyapati is matchless. He had given the woman
her due. With a rare insight into the heart of a love-lorn woman, he has
explored the entire gamut of feelings that a woman in love can have. He
has also expressed the feeling that a woman has about, during and after
the very act of love making. He is almost feminine while describing a
woman. Radha is described from woman’s point of view with matchless
tenderness. Radha is Vidyapati’s true heroine. The softness and delicacy
of female temperament stirred his deepest feelings. His lyrics are a blend
of eroticism and devotion and there were reasons for their being so. Being
hardput to reconcile on the one hand the demand of his patrons for the
courtly and erotic poetry, and on the other hand the demand of the society
for poetry which may save Hinduism from the onslaughts of Islam, he
wrote primarily love. and secular poems where the quality of ecstatic
praise, of intense and personal devotion is wanting. To that extent his
songs were dealing with secular love. It was in such contexts that he
regarded two breasts as incarnations of Shiva. It must also be admitted
that he gave his lyrics a devotional character by having Radha and
Krishna as the protagonists of love duels. We have a very large number
of passages where Krishna is referred to as endowed with certain divine
qualities in the love poems of Vidyapati. He is called Madhava and Hari.
Krishna of Vidyapati is the same person as the incarnation of Vishnu.
Had Krishna been not the divine Hero, our poet would not have received
such high praise from the devout Maithila Vaishnava poet, Govindadasa.
Radhakrishna’s sports in the groves attracted his attention. Rasalila
is a patent story of the Krishna legend. In a dark night, Krishna thinks,
how Gopi will come after crossing the Yamuna and it is here that
Vidyapati asserts that the Gopis are wiser than Kanha and they know
the way out. Love here takes the form of adventure. Radha’s longing for
Krishna has been picturesquely painted and there are some of the finest
lyrics depicting her restlessness. In the presentation of Radhakrishna
theme, Vidyapati sets a new line. There is little or practically no difference
between him and the Bhagavata. He has twisted the story according to
his own convenience. In his description of the Purvaraga, Sambhogamilana,
Abhisara and Mana, Vidyapati is more of a poet than a prophet. He
ransacks the whole classical store to find an apt simile and is never weary
of applying as much of these as is within his knowledge, like the sound
scholar of rhetoric that he is.
The story begins with Radha’s coming to age (Vayasandhi or the dawn
of youth). According to Vidyapati, she is younger than Krishna. The
freedom of childhood is gone and the beauty that has come so newly to
her person is a surprise to herself. His Radha is a special creation of
beauty, dream seen in the flesh. A sweet smile such as befits a model
damsel is displayed in the soft curve of her coral lips. Where her gentle
steps may tread, water-lilies spring up at the touch of her feet. She can
hardly hide the joy of her consciousness of the charms of her person, a
revelation to many. Her smile is like the nectar which gives life and
immortality. Her glances are cupid’s own arrows. The Vayasandhi begins
at the time when Radha, of exiquisite beauty, is to fall in love with
Krishna. The messenger talks to Radha about Krishna and vice-versa.
Both of them see each other and thus starts the purvaraga (the first
attraction). The first occasion was caused through messengers. During
the period of Purvraga, the messengers depict the beauty of each other.
Stage is then set ready for abhisara and the first meeting takes place.
Here the poet creates a wilderness of lavish metaphors, overloaded with
classical and conventional figures. Even through this cloud of imagery,
appears a vision of Radha’s beauty. Radha is described as a luminous
wand, created by lightening, like a golden tendril. The rich clusters of
her black hair are like the clouds or the bees but are soft and tender like
the Shaibala (moss). In the graceful curves of a bow, her eyebrows are
bent and her forehead beams with the lustre of the moon. Radha’s beauty
is described in a manner becoming of a poet of the stature of Vidyapati.
Her eyes remind of the Khanjana bird, nose is like the Tila flower, and
lips have the hue of coral. With this form of matchless beauty, Radha
glows with shy happiness at the thought of first meeting. She goes out
in the dark night to meet her lover but the hesitation still persists and
she finds herself face to face with Krishna. The tenderness of the meeting
is indescribable. The situation gradually changes. On return Radha
narrates the experience of her first meeting with Krishna. Then begins
Mana (the pique) and again they meet and Krishna entreats Radha. Radha,
describing Krishna says : “He is a flower to be placed upon her head; he
is the collyrium that makes her eyes beautiful; he is a precious necklace
clinging about the neck; she cannot conceive life without him; he is to
her what water is to the fish, or wings to a bird; the very breath of her
being and the only object of her life.” Here we have the exuberance of
sensuousness but at long last he rose above such sentiments and gave to
the story a spiritual interpretation.
In the description of scenes, torrents of similes spontaneously arise
and in spite of the fact that Radha found herself lost in Krishna, she felt
that Krishna was yet unrevealed to her. The agonised expression of the
infinitely little in presence of the infinitely great is found in touching cry
of Radha—”O Krishna, what art thou?”. Abhisara goes on and they meet
each other in the groves and while doing so, she is conscious of the
unfavourable social criticism. In the meantime, Krishna informs Radha
about his departure from Gokula to Mathura. The event takes place and
the pangs of separation are now unbearable to both. Even with all the
accessories at her disposal, Radha does not feel happy and same is the
case with Krishna. Their feelings are narrated to each other by the gobetween.
Imaginary and real meetings take place. The meeting is
generally on mental plane and Radha becomes satisfied. Vidyapati creates
a tender pathos by describing Krishna’s desertion of Gokula—
“Krishna has gone to Mathura,
Alas Gokula is deserted.
The bird Suka weeps in its cage;
the cows look up wistfully, and
All their gestures point to Mathura.
No longer do shepherds and milkmaids meet on the bank of
Jamuna.
O, Maids, how can I go to those banks again and bear to see
the pleasant bowers without him.
The beloved groves where he and the maidens played amongst
flowers, how do they rise before me and yet I bear to live.”
She is about to die and says :
“If the lily has been withered by the cold rays of winter moon,
what joy can it have in the coming of the spring ?”
If the seeds have been destroyed by the summer sun, what
will it avail that there be showers afterwards ?
Dying of thirst, I came to the Ocean. Alas not a drop had I to
quench my thirst
Weary, I came to the sandal tree, but the sweet scent ceased. I
came for soothing to the light of the moon, and it began to scorch
me with fire.
The month of Sravan with its raining floods had not a drop
for me.
The Kalpataru (the tree of plenty in Indra’s heaven) is barren
for me.
O, Krishna, O lord of my Soul
I sought refuge in thee, but found it not
The poet, Vidyapati, is silent from wonder”.
Though Radha speaks in the language of despair, she is nevertheless
conscious of the all pervading mercy of God. The images here are all
similes for Krishna-himself. He is the ocean, the sandal tree, the
moonlight, etc. The mourner is about to die of her longing for the return
of Krishna :—
“I shall surely die, says Radha, but to whom can I trust my
Krishna?
O, ye maidens, my companion, cover me in my last hour
with the name of Krishna.
O, Lalita, friend of my heart, let the sound, I hear, be the
name of Krishna.
Burn not my body, O maidens, nor float it on the streams;
but bind it on the boughs of a Tamala tree; and let me rest for ever
in its dark blue colour.
If it should sometime chance that Krishna comes to see these
groves again, I shall be called back to life at the sight of him.
Sing in my ears, O Maidens, the name of Krishna, that
hearing it, I may expire”.
The story on the whole is ekangi (gushing love) of the one party and
Vidyapati has taken only such episodes which he thought necessary for
his poetry, departing from the original wherever desirable. It is said that
when Krishna went to Mathura, the messengers took Radha’s message
to him and this part is his own invention. He again brings Krishna from
Mathura and arranges a meeting and thereby the pangs of separation
are soothed. In the Bhagavata story, the reference is made to the Gopis
and not to Radha in particular. He has referred to Uddhava, which is
another departure from the original. Vidyapati does not send him to
Braja. From our poet’s description of Uddhava, it appears that he was
thoroughly acquainted with the original form of Krishna. His originality
lay in the fact that he succeeded in constructing a connected whole.
Inspired by the ancient rasa theory, he decorated the entire episode with
his flowery poetic genius and that is why his padavali is immortal. Radha
and Krishna have been the themes of innumarable poets and writers.
Our poet has introduced Krishna in his vigorous youth. Krishna,
introduced by Jayadeva, was perfected by Vidyapati who has described
his features, his role as a hero and also his pangs of separation. Jayadeva’s
devotion to Krishna, delight in love, awareness of nature and belief in
poetry are equally strong. It was the influence of these qualities of
Jayadeva on Vidyapati which earned for the latter the title of
‘Abhinavajayadeva’. His songs have found a prominent place in the
Vaishnava compilations of Bengal and they are sung by Vaishnava
singers on all occasions. His songs, compiled as early as the 16th century
A.D. in Bengal, glow with poetry, colour and wealth of expression.
Vidyapati’s treatment of Radhakrishna episode swings like a pendulum
between the Bhagavata and the Brahmavaivarta Puranas. Certain deep
feelings expressed in this connection connot be the result of a mere feeling
for poetry but of actual experience in life.
In the realm of poetry, he was an original genius and as a poet of
love he was unrivalled. The various titles conferred upon him show the
great esteem in which he was held by all lovers of poetry and music. He
himself admits that he has sung the emotions of love. At another place
he says that the mirth of sexual enjoyment is the quintessence of life.
About himself, he says—”the best among the poets is Abhinava Jayadeva
and the best among the rasas is Sringararasa”. He further adds that the
Sringararasa, if accompanied with Dharma, gives the greatest enjoyment
to the art of poetry. He lived full life and therefore he has idealised the
fulness of life. The art of love has undoubtedly been idealised in his
sweet lyrics. The supporter of ‘desilabayana’ is also an exponent of the
beauty of the language. His language is always crystal clear. In his use
of utpreksha, he is as unsurpassed as Kalidasa has been in the use of
Upama. Vidyapati always prefers the concrete to the abstract. His style is
picturesque and he has a wonderful capacity of easy expression. His
poetic talents were almost instinctive with him. As a born poet, his style
is simple, natural, lucid, racy with a flow which makes it vivid with life.
He was equally witty as well, of which an instance will not be out of
place here. Once Pakshadhar Mishra, the renowned logician, happened
to be at the house of Vidyapati. He was tired and so he slept before meal.
When the food was ready, Pakshadhar was invited. When Vidyapati
came to know of it, he said—”the guest on account of his smallness of size
could not be noticed like the Ghuna insect lying in a corner”. To this
Pakshadhar retorted— “Generally the eyes of the short-sighted ones donot
reach up the things that are fine.”
Vidyapati chose Maithili to bind together all the different sections
of the people living in the land of Mithila. The tradition of literary
composition in Maithili was already there and our poet succeeded in
making it the most important language of the period. Maithili was not
yet free from the crudities of old Prakrit and had not found a place of
honour among the cultured classes to the extent it should have been so
by that time. He also tried his hands in the old and antiquated
Apabhramsa (Kirtilata and Kirlipataka) but he immediately switched on
to the spoken language and composed his sweet lyrics. Love and devotion
formed the basis of his songs and through his philosophy of love, he
appealed to all irrespective of caste, creed, class, sex and religion. His
songs touched the hearts of all sections of the people. It has been rightly
asserted that “he oscillates, in fact, between a quite exceptional
appreciation of feminine delicacy and a robust ‘stand no nonsense’
attitude”.
He represented the basic needs and aspirations of the people of
Mithila through his famous Nacharis, popular among all the classes of
people. The Nacharis have a remarkable spontaneity, unique simplicity
and extreme directness of expression. The true picture of the rural life
and culture of Mithila, nay of contemporary eastern India, is depicted in
his Nacharis. In his list of Desi Sangeet Abul Fazal, in his Aini Akbari,
mentions the Nachari of Vidyapati. Lochana in his RT says that Sivasimha
had employed a master musician, Jayata or Jayanta (a Kayastha), to set
to tunes the lyrical songs of Vidyapati. His songs are sung on all festive
occasions in Mithila and it is impossible to think of Mithila without
Vidyapati. Mithila is Vidyapati and vice-versa. Abul Fazal also testifies
to the fact that the songs of Vidyapati are on the violence of the passions
of love. He was the product of contemporary Mithila and could not throw
off the shackless of feudal outlook but as a seer and a thinker he could
foresee the needs of his people and give a message,
He exercised great influence over the poetic firmament of northern
India and his songs have been so popular in different parts of the country
that they have been studied and interpreted in different manners. For
the most part, critics have been content to mouth out a few platitudes,
and in an overwhelming concern with the historical importance ignore
completely his instinctive greatness. His nearest equivalent in English
poetry is Spenser who also wrote mellifluous poetry in the vernacular.
Spenser took recourse to archaism. The English love poets have invariably
confined themselves to the feelings of the male partner in love, our poet
has given the woman her due, Krishna’s hands are the true subjects of
Jayadeva’s poetry but in Vidyapati, Krishna is the lover and is accepted
as a marvellous lover. Radha is Vidyapati’s true heroine. She is described
with the woman point of view. Vidyapati’s matchless handling of the
tenderness of a woman sets female almost on a parity with the males.
He loved and admired the female temperament but did not blind himself
to the masculine traits. Living long before Shakespeare, Vidpapati
showed so deep an understanding of love. Like Donne, Vidyapati in his
late religious verse expressed the same ardent rapture which had earlier
found expression in his poetry of love. We cannot but marvel at the sweep
of his imagination, which ranged from normal human love to love which
transcends the individual plane and melts into impersonal ecstasies on
the universal plane. All his rich experience, his power of observation
and sense of beauty went to make and mould his poetry. Though his
poetry ministers at first to sensuousness, but gradually it rises to a plane
which goes beyond all material limitations,
“When to my temple, Krishna shall repair,
I will look at his moon-like face with full eyes,
When as his beloved, I shall say, “No No”
Murari will love me all the more”-(Bhavollasa).
X X X
“The night today I have passed happily as I saw the moonlike face
of my lover. My life and youth are being led to fruition as the ten
directions appear fine and clear” —(meeting after separation).
X X X
“Love rises to a height which knows no satiety and has a glory all
its own”.
X X X
“Numerous spring nights have I passed in revelry and yet I have
not understood what is love-sport. Lacs upon lacs of years I have
entertained him in my heart and yet the heart has remained unsatisfied”.
X X X
The beloved bears the same relation to the lover as the waves bear
to the ocean. Vidyapati says :—
“While many Brahma will appear and pass away, you donot
know any beginning or end ; he will take his birth in you and shall
merge in you in the manner of the waves in the ocean”.
Melodious Poems:
“Ah how shall I her lovely body express ?
Fair things how many nature in her blended
Mine own eyes saw are my lips praise”.
X X X
‘’Sweat and strange as it were a dream
I have seen a vision gleam
Lotus flowers were his feet
Bearing moon a caracanet”.
X X X
“The moon at thy face from high heaven doth peer/And the voice
alarms the cuckoo’s pride”.
X X X
The idyllic romance of Radhakrishna represents the vital phases of
human experience and fusion of natural phenomenon with the greatest
of lovers. Like the age of Aeschylus in Greece and Shakespeare in
England, the age of Vidyapati marked the final blooming of the
renaissance of music and dancing. Lyrics found its greatest exponents
in Umapati, Shankaradatta and Vidyapati, the latter having raised its
status to the greatest height. It found natural expression throughout the
length and breadth of Mithila and crossed the frontier of Tirhut in no
time. He represented the culmination of various tendencies of his age in
the history of modern Indian vernacular and that is why he has
naturalised himself both in Hindi and Bengali. Seven cities contended
for the honour of the birth-place of Homer but no other poet, with the
exception of Vidyapati, has been claimed as their own by three peoples
speaking three different languages, viz. Hindi, Maithili and Bengali.
Grierson called it to be an event—”unparalleled in the history of
literature”, and went on to say that—”even when the sun of Hindu
religion is set still the love borne for the songs of Vidyapati will never
diminish.” Vidyapati was a notable contemporary of Chaucer,
Chandidas, Kabir, Ramanand Roy, Suradas, Shankaradeva and a host
of others. A versatile genius, he laid his hands successfully on
Apabhramsa, Prakrit and Maithili.
His historical poetry in vernacularised Avahatta forms a link
between the Magadhi Prakrit and modern vernacular. It was in the realm
of narrative and lyrical poetry that he was unparalleled. He had the
unique capacity of marshalling facts and describing things. His
description of Jaunpur is without any admixture of the marvellous. In
describing the prostitutes over there, his alliterations, similes, metaphors
and expressions are bold and sentences are well marked. For marvellous
human touches all through, the Kirtilata is a fine achievement of the poet.
The age of Vidyapati was a golden age of Mithila. He was equally alive
to the needs of the defence of his country and liberty. Pre-eminently a
staunch realist and a man of action, he laid stress on the creative and
utilitrian aspect rather than a purely theoretical or speculative one. There
is a fire of idealism in the Purusha-pariksha which also deals with his
ideas on diplomacy. To him, sex was not a taboo but a hard truth and
there was nothing unnatural in singing about this fundamental urge of
life.
His undying fame rests on his Padavali whose range of songs is
simply amazing. The songs are characterised by the freshness of its style
of music. The Padavali contains all types of songs, love songs, devotional
songs, occasional songs, riddles and others etc. Here is a curious mixture
of all sorts of songs. In his description of the dawn of youthful beauty, of
harmonious limbs, of charming poses, gestures and movements and
vibrations of her heart, our poet is unparalleled. Though not a connected
Kavya, they were written at the moments of inspired experience or in
response to the occasional demands. There is nothing left to be desired
in Vidyapati. The narrative is refreshingly simple and natural without
any external decoration or artificial adornment. The picture of conflict
between propriety and enjoyment, passionate and pathetic sentiments,
sensuous and respective moods, remorse and longing, is ably depicted
in a charming language and in sophisticated mannner. He is equally
adept in describing the pranks near the river banks and elsewhere and
also the consummation of love. He describes nature in the background
of human emotions and the nature is shown in relation to diverse moods
of men and women in his ornate style. His poems of separation take him
to the Himalayan height. In his description of night, he approaches
Jyotirishwar and the PPM. His riddles and occasional songs owe their
origin to the social needs of the people in general. He subdued every
poetic element into a harmony of artistic perfection. A great master of
verbal music, his song on the rain is a masterpiece :
“My friend, there is no limit to my unhappiness
It is the month of Bhadra, It is raining heavily, and
my house is empty.
The thunder is roaring, and the earth is filled with rain. My
lover is away in foreign land, and the cruel Kama is darting sharp
arrows at me.
Delighted by the thunder, the peacocks are dancing wildly,
the frogs are cracking madly, and Dahuki (water-fow) is crying,
Breaking my heart.
All around is darkness, the night is deep and lightning is
restless.
Vidyapati says, how will you spend this night without Hari?”
He was the greatest poet of eastern India and was the greatest
influence on the writer of the Padas particularly in respect of style and
diction. Though comparatively pure, he is at times archaic and sometimes
obscure and difficult. It is his genius that he is too close to the subject
matter and too much dominated by it just to make great poetry of it.
Radha’s feelings have been transmuted by their own intensity into the
fire flame of poetry in the following lines :—
“How shall I tell what I feel ?
My love becomes new every moment
Ever since my birth have I beheld his beauty
yet any eyes are not appeased.
For millions of ages, have I passed my heart to his
yet my heart is not appeased.”
Vidyapati is great because he struck a human note that was
altogether new to vernacular literature. In the above lines, human love
is being valued for its own sake as something to be offered to another
human being. Leaving aside, the allegorical setting, these poems can be
read and enjoyed as pure love poems. He gave a new impetus to the
lyrical tendency. He was adorned with the following titles—Sarasa,
Kanthahara, Abhinavavayadeva, Kavisekhara, Navakavisekhara, Kaviratna,
Kaviranjana, Dasavadhana, Rajapandita etc. In the use of similes, he is
equally great. He compares Radha’s eyes to lotus and bee. He says—
“the pupil of her eye is like a bee resting on the lotus, the
breeze driving it into a corner.... the pupil of her eye is like a bee,
so intoxicated with the honey of the lotus that it cannot fly away.”
He further says:
Her eyes beautified with Kajjala have assumed a purple hue,
they look like the petals of lotus coloured with vermillion.”
At one place, the soul is described as being on the point of
abandoning itself to God:
Fair one, haste to the love meeting.
Even now will the moon arise.
Darkness will desert the night and the means of obtainning
love be removed.
Lovely one, expose not thy face, or on all sides there will be a bright
light. The Chakora will take thy face for the risen moon, and covetuous
of thine ambrosia, will coaxingly (approach you, tasted it) and go away.
Speak not inadvertently with thine ambrosial voice, or others will
think it nectar. When bee seeth thy face, he will take it for an open waterlily,
and will sip the honey of the lower lip.
Thou art desirous of love and it is a night in the month of Chaitra
(So haste) as thou desirest to return home. The new poet, Jayadeva, says
this before Raja Sivasimha Rupanarayana.”
The latest critical work on Vidyapati is by Shri Niranjana Chakravarti
who has examined afresh, on the basis of some new manuscript
(Baranagar Manuscript), the existing stock of knowledge on our poet
(Vide-Vidyapati Sameeksha-Calcutta-l970). The work deals with the critical
analysis of the writings of the Bengali poets under the name of Vidyapati.
A critical study of the existing works on Vidyapati has been presented
in a lucid manner and then his Bhanitas have been examined. One may
or may not agree with what Chakravarti says but the fact remains that
he has examined these Bhanitas in the background of new source material
studied critically in the background of Bengali literature. This work has
thrown a new challenge to those who are interested in the study of
Vidyapati. Even purely from a Maithila point of view, a critical study of
Vidyapati is yet a desideratum and the path has been shown by
Chakravarti. Vidyapati’s relation with Baijjaladeva Chauhan of Patna
(Orissa) also needs further examination in the light of materials now
available for study (Vide—R. K. Chaudhary, Prabodhachandika in the
ABORI, 1964; and Shailendra Mohan Jha’sarticle in the Mithila Bharati’,
Patna, 1970-71). Chakravarti has not touched this point. Lakkha seni
mentions Vidyapati alongwith Jayadev and Ghagh:
tSnso pys lxZ dh okVk
vks x;s ?k?k lqjifr HkkVk
uxj ufjUæ ts x;s mukjh
fo|kifr dg x;s ykpkjh (Ain-i-Akbari 1598.)
II
Some Eminent Contemporaries :
A connected account of the eminent contemporaries of Vidyapati or
his immediate successors is not yet available. The old anthologies and
other stray records contain the songs and compositions of a large number
of poets and authors who were either contemporaries or successors of
Vidyapati. The Tarauni palm leaf MSS of Nagendranath Gupta, since lost
from the Calcutta University Library, contained more than hundred
poems written by poets other than Vidyapati. The Nepal MSS of Vidyapati’s
padavali, discovered by Haraprasad Shastri, contained the poems of
thirteen poets other than Vidyapati. Nepal MSS forms the basis of the
edition of Subhadra Jha and that of the Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad.
The Rambhadrapur MSS contains two poems by Amritkara and twenty
four padas without any bhanita. The Raj Library MSS has one poem by
Lakshminath and another annonymous one is incomplete. The Bhasagita
MSS of Nepal, noticed by Haraprasad Shastri, P. C. Bagchi and J. K. Mishra
is a remarkable collection of Maithili songs. The MSS noticed by Shastri
and Bagchi, had only eightyone songs whereas the another, noticed by
Mishra, has hundred and seventy-three poems out of which ninetynine
is written in one handwriting and seventyfour in another. More than
eight poets, other than Vidyapati, are collected there. The
Kamsanarayanapadavali, preserved in the Hemraja Sharma library of
Nepal, contains one hundred and fortysix poems of about twentyfour
poets including Vidyapati. Lochana’s RT and Jagajyotirmalla’s
Sangitachandra contain some best specimen of Maithili poems. There are
various other old Maithili MSS, spread over the length and breadth of
Mithila which contain a fair collection of Maithili poems of all ages and
some of them are coming to light almost invariably. Various other MSS
are still lying unnoticed in Mithila.
Among the most notable and eminent contemporaries of Vidyapati
were persons, associated with the Oinwara court. The two eminent
Kayastha poets of the age were Amritakara and Amiyakara. Both of them
held the post of minister at the Oinwara court and were very much
attached to Sivasimha and his successors. They were equally attached to
Vidyapati who adorned the Oinwara court by his august personality.
Vidyapati has complimented Amiyakara as a person, well versed in
politics and poetics, and of philanthrophic disposition. He was a source
of perpetual relief to the poor and the needy. He is described as a moon
among the Kayasthas and a repository of nectars. Vidyapati pays his
compliments to this respository of nectar in the following words :
“Amiyakara is a veteran policy maker and well-versed in
mathematics.
He has special command over lexicon, grammar and poetics,
He honours everybody and befriends all.
He helps the poor, the Brahmanas and the afflicted.
As a musical genius, he shines like the moon among the
Kayasthas.
He provokes the appellation,
“the gar land of the poets” for himself and showers necter in
his verse.”
This unqualified tribute to Amiyakara by Vidyapati shows his
greatness as a poet, a musician, a grammarian and a lexicographer.
Though his poems are available only in quotations here and there, it
may be asserted without any fear of contradiction that he was a great
genius of his time and his knowledge of poetics was second to none.
According to Dr. B. B. Majumdar, Amiyakara was a man of affairs and a
popular poet. It is wrong to call him an imitator of Vidyapati, who pays
him tribute in such high sounding words. He was a great poet and
Vidyapati was proud of his company at the Oinwara Court. The writer
of these lines is a direct descendant of this great poet. All his poems are
yet to be collected and published.
Amritakara, another Kayastha minister of Bhairavasimha- deva, was
an eminent poet and a notable contemporary of Vidyapati. His extant
love poems, though few and far between, show that he was a poet of no
mean importance. He composed songs for a pretty long time,that is from
the time of Sivasimha to that of Bhairavasimhadeva. His poems, too are
available only in quotations and are scattered in a number of collections
and hence it is not posssible to present a comprehensive study of this
poet. Even then we cannot minimise his importance in the literary history
of Mithila. Amritakara and Amiyakara were two different persons
belonging to two different families and hence these names should not
be confused with the one and the same person as has hitherto been done
by the scholars. Amritakara belonged to the Balainbamsa and Amiyakara
belonged to Biara-bamsa of the Kayasthas of Mithila. The main difficulty
in presenting their correct estimate is the lack of availability of their
works. A complete MS of Vidyapati’s Kirtipataka when discovered, will
throw a flood of light on many contemporary problems including the
history of some of the eminent contemporaries.
Vidyapati’s own daughter-in-law, Chandrakala, was one of his
notable contemporaries. Her single extant song has been preserved in
the RT. It is a sensuous one, full of Sanskrit words and images and it is
evident that she was well-versed in Sanskrit. In that extant poem,
Chandrakala illustrates pritikariragini. Bilingualism in literary
composition was a common feature in Mithila in those days and hence
there is nothing unnatural about it if we find the excessive use of Sanskrit
words and imageries in her poetry. She is believed to be the wife of
Harapati, eldest son of Vidyapati. This identification has been recently
questioned by Pandit Kanchinath Jha “Kiran”, who has tried to show
that she was the wife of Chandrakavi Jayadeva and not the daughter-inlaw
of Vidyapati. The entire chronological sequence of Mithila is in a
state of flux and hence no last word can be said in the present state of
our knowledge.
Vidyapati’s eldest son, Harapati, was a renowned scholar of his time.
He wrote in Sanskrit two important books, viz. Vyavahara-pradipa and
Daivajnabandhava. He was a great astrologer. He was a Mudrahastaka
(keeper of the royal seal) under the Oinwara. Like his father, he was a
great poet as well. His extant poems are not all known, though some
stray poems have been noticed here and there. Four of his Maithili songs
have hitherto come to light and they deal with parakiya heroine, mana
and Viraha. It appears that Harapati, like his father, was a poet of love
and beauty and the influence of Vidyapati on his poems is immense.
Only recently some of his poems have been brought to light by Prof.
Vedanath Jha.
A well known Sanskrit writer, Bhanukavi, is equally prominent in
the realm of Maithili literature and was an eminent contemporary of
Vidyapati. Two persons of this name have flourished in the middle ages
and hence proper identification is not possible. He is believed to have
been a contemporary of Chandrasimha, step brother of Maharaja
Bhairavasimha. In another source, it is said that Maharaja Chandrasimha
of Morang (Nepal) was the patron of Bhanukavi. His extant poems are
collected in the above mentioned MSS and anthologies. In so far as poetic
qualities are concerned, Gajasimha is far more important than Bhanukavi.
His poem is collected in the Tarauni Palm leaf MSS with his own name in
the Bhanita. In his viraha poems, there is a slender touch of weariness
besides the usual charm and fluency. Another Sanskrit author,
Rudradhara, is a great Maithili poet and his extant poem is collected in
the Nepal MSS. Bhikhari Mishra Kaviraj, Dasabadhana Thakur and
Narapati Thakur also composed songs in Maithili. Their age and identity
are yet in the limbo of oblivion and nothing positive about them is known
to us except that Narapati Thakur was the second son of Vidyapati.
Among the eminent contemporaries of Vidyapati, the most important
is Vishnupuri, one of the greatest medieval thinkers and the well-known
author of Bhaktiratnavali. He is the most important writer and composer
of Maithili songs of medieval period after Vidyapati. The favourite theme
of the Vaishnava faith was the love of Radha and Krishna and this aspect
has been treated by writers of the middle ages both scholastically and
popularly. The Bhagavata Bhakti ratnakara is a good example of the
scholastic treatment. Chaitanya was equally indebted to Vidyapati and
Vishnupuri. Dr. S. K. De, in the Padavali of Rupa Goswami, has
incorporated the Krishnaite writings of the Tirabhukti Bhaktas and a
study of the same reveals to us that the attitude towards the Krishna cult
in Mithila and Bengal was almost the same in the beginning. While
Vishnupuri represented the scholastic side, the popular way of handling
Radhakrishna cult was initiated by Jayadeva and had its efflorescene in
Vidyapati. Vishnupuri flourished in the middle of the fifteenth century
A. D. and belonged to the family of Karmaha Tarauni. He was a widely
travelled man and his original name, before he took Sanyasa, was
Ramapati. His works were immediately translated into Bengali in the
latter half of the fifteenth century A. D. and for sometime he was taken
to be a Bengali. He is believed to have composed songs in Maithili and
some of his extant poems bear Vishnupuri as his Bhanita. He was a
thorough Vaishnava and hence most of his songs have by now been
naturalised in Bengali. He was a devoted singer. His extant Maithili songs
bear the imprint of his greatness as a poetic genius.
Other notable contemporaries of Vidyapati included Yasod-hara,
Chatur Chaturbhuja, Navakavisekhara or Kavisekhara, Jivanatha,
Rajapandita, Madhusudhana, Lakshminarayana, Laksminatha,
Kashinatha, Shyamasundara, Shridhara, Govinda, Ramanatha,
Kamsanarayana and a host of others. A complete collection of the poems
of the above mentioned authors is not available but their extant poems
in different collections, anthologies and MSS enable us to show that they
were great poets and composers of songs but their recognition was not
possible in view of all pervading personality of Vidyapati. Yasodhara
dedicated his poems to King Hussain Shah of Bengal. Chaturakavi
composed songs on the Krishna legend. Bhishma Kavi acquired
prominence in the Moranga Court (Nepal) for his sweet Maithili songs.
He had a great mastery of rhythm and had acquired a name for himself.
Various other poets and writers travelled to different parts of the country
and carried with them the tradition of Maithili lyrics. They composed
and sang for their masters. Both secular and devotional poems were
written by the contemporary poets. Lakshminatha was a prolific writer
and a poet of great eminence. In one of the Bhanitas, he calls himself
Lakshminathanaresha.
Kamsanarayana, the last of the Oinwaras, was one of the greatest
patrons of Maithili literature after Sivasimha. Himself a poet of repute,
he patronised poets and scholars. A complete collection of his Padavali
is now under the possesion of J. K. Mishra. The Bhagirathpur inscription
contains an eulogy of the last great king of the Oinwaras. He was a
contemporary of Nasrat Shah of Bengal, who was responsible for the
final conquest of Tirhut. In one of his poems, Kamsanarayana, a terror
to the Yavanas (as described in the Bhagirathpur inscription), sings of
Nasrat Shah of Bengal. Politically downtrodden and dejected, Mithila
still maintained her literary tradition and during the reign of
Kamsanarayana, there was a brilliant revival of the tradition of lyrical
songs. From the literary point of view, the age was as glorious as that of
Vidyapati since a good number of lyric poets found shelter under his
hospitable roof and there they contributed a good deal towards the
development of Maithili literature.
Govinda, Kashinatha, Ramanatha and Shridhara were the shining
luminaries in the court of Kamsanarayana and their poems are collected
in a number of anthologies and MSS. Govinda occupied the same place
in his court as Vidyapati had in the court of Sivasimha. The identification
of Govinda is yet a matter of conjecture but a glance at the Panji of the
Kayasthas will lead us to conclude that he was a Kayastha. On the basis
of this study of Kayastha Panji Pandit Shashinath Jha has shown that
Govindadasa belonged to a renowned scholarly family of the Karna
Kayastha. He was a brilliant poet whose imageries are marvellous and
metaphors remarkable. He is the master of racy language, lucid style
and sweet songs. He was a devotee of Krishna and his command over
the language was unique. His expressions in superb lyrical language
are lucid.
Vidyapati mentions one Bodhidasa, a Kayastha, as a devout saint
and scholar in his Purushapariksha. The sparks of Vidyapati continued to
be kindled by his eminent contemporaries like Amiyakara, Amritakara.
Chaturbhuja, Govinda, Bhisma, Bodhidasa Kamsanarayana, Vishnupuri
and others under the benign patronage of the Oinwara court. Even the
last ruler of this dynasty provided ground for the all round development
of Maithili literature. From all angles, the reign of Kamsanarayana, also
identified with Lakshminatha, forms a landmark in the literary history
of Mithila. Forgetting the distressing political condition of Mithila and
deteriorating economic condition, the elites of the age and others
important in public life, encouraged the popular language and enthused
all important men of letters to compose in vernacular. The earlier tradition
reached a high watermark in the reign of the poet-king, Kamsanarayana,
who is said to have sung: “Have patience, all your desires will be
fulfilled”. Two more poets of eminence, believed to be contemporaries
of Vidyapati, are known and they are Simhabhupati (a renowned poet)
and Champati (an Oriya poet) also known as Vidyapati. The poems of
Champati (also known as Vidyapati) are in pure Maithili. The
identification of Simhabhupati, Champati and others have been discussed
threadbare and examined afresh by Niranjan Chakravarti. The age of
Vidyapati has left an indelible mark on the history of Maithili literature.
The queens and courtiers of the age were equally interested in the
development of popular language and lyrical poetry.
Love was the theme of all the poets of the age and they dwelt mainly
with the love sports of Radhakrishna, though songs on other Gods and
Goddesses were not altogether neglected. The secular character of these
songs is evident and that is a great point to be reckoned with in the
middle ages. Fine imageries and emotions mark the poems of all
important poets and in no time the sweetness and charm of Maithili
poetry gave birth to a host of imitation in Mithila and other parts of
India. Some of the imitators were so successful that at this stage it is
difficult to distinguish the imitation from the original. Maithili literature
till the time of Govindadasa continued to be dominated by the spirit of
Vidyapati and the reasons are obvious. The unsettled social and political
condition was responsible for all round decline in the realm of art and
culture. The absence of a really poetic genius after Vidyapati is responsible
for the decline of poetic spirit. With the passing away of Kamsanarayana
from the scene of history, the progressive trend of Maithili literature
suffered a setback and disruption set in for years to come. There were
some worthy successors, no doubt, but they were without the glory of
their predecessors.
III
Successors without Glory:
The indelible mark of Vidyapati on the history of Maithili literature
is evident from the study of the poets who followed him. He dominated
the scene for more than two centuries and his successors bear a clear
impress of his poetic genius. The mediocre successors, though impressive
in their own way, pale into insignificance when compared with those of
their master. All his successors, with the notable exception of
Govindadasa, were mediocre poets without any glory. Most of them were
imitators and minor poets and no notable extracts of these writers are
known to us, though some of them are preserved in different anthologies.
They do not deserve any special mention. After the fall of the Oinwaras
the centre of gravity shifted to Nepal and most of the writers also shifted
to Nepal. In Mithila, Haridasa, Mahesha Thakur, Bhagiratha Kavi,
Mahinath Thakur, Lochana, Bhavesah, Bhawaninath, Chaturanana Kavi,
Dharanidhara, Jayakrishna, Jayarama, Raja Lakhanachanda, Nripa
Prithvinatha, Prithvichanda, Kaviraja Puranamalla, Ratnai Kavi
Sadananda, Sangama Kavi and many others were the important
successors of Vidyapati. Among the worthy successors were
Govindadasa and Lochana. They wrote on different aspects, both
canonical and secular. The old theme of Nachari and Radhakrishna legend
continued to influence the course of Maithili poetry after Vidyapati. The
songs of some of the scccessors of Vidyapati are preserved in the RT of
Lochana. Haridasa is well known for his Nachari.
The founder of the Khandawala dynasty of Mithila, Mm. Mahesha
Thakur, was a versatile genius. Though usually known all over India as
a renowned scholar of Sanskrit, he is well known in Maithili for his
devotional songs in praise of Shiva, Ganga and Tara. His expressions
are direct and simple. He has the unique capacity of expressing his highest
philosophy in the simplest language. He was a great patron of poets and
scholars. His brother, Bhagiratha in continuation Thakur, was also a poet
of some importance and he is said to have composed songs in praise of
Maharaja Manasimha. who, in the words of Grierson, was “a great patron
of learned men”. Mahesha Thakur is said to have won the confidence of
Akbar and Manasimha. Since his days, the Khandawala court has been
a great source of inspiration to Maithili writers and poets.
GOVINDADASA
As a matter of fact, in thoughts, in imagery, and in the forms of
expression, the contemporaries and immediate successors of Vidyapati
are so much indebted to the great master that we donot come across any
original figure till we reach the time of Govindadasa in the beginning of
the Seventeenth century A. D. With Govindadasa begins a new phase in
the history of Maithili literature. In the age of Govindadasa, Maithili
could be cultivated only as the emotional vein of personal devotion to
God or as the expressions of natural feelings of love. The age of
Govindadasa is uncertain and so is his identity The Anandavijayanatika
contains a vivid account of his qualities. He is believed to have flourished
in the seventeenth century and to have been attached to the Khandawala
rulers of Tirhut.
His favourite theme was the love of Radhakrishna and here
Govindadasa is by far the best writer after Vidyapati. At that time there
was a close cultural contact between Mithila and Bengal and there was
regular interchange of ideas and thoughts. Navadwipa was modelled
on the ‘Chaupari’ of Mithila and Chaitanya was greatly indebted to
Vidyapati and Vishnupuri. It is believed that Govindadasa was greatly
influenced by the teachings of Chaitanya and there is nothing unnatural
about it. Govindadasa directly appealed to the senses and this he could
accomplish with rare distinction through the musical qualities of his
songs. That way, he was the greatest successor of Vidyapati. Like
Vidyapati, Govindadasa has also been claimed by the Bengalies as their
own. Nagendranath Gupta declared him to be a Maithila poet and an
authentic edition of his Maithili poems was published by the late Dr.
Amarnath Jha in the now extinct Sahitya Patra of Darbhanga. A critical
estimate of Govindadasa has been published by Narendranath Das in a
number of articles. A popular edition of Govindadasa Padavali has been
published by Mathura Prasad Dixit. A new edition of Govindadasa
Padavali has since been edited by the late Dr. Biman Bihari Majumdar
and published from Calcutta.
His poems on the Radhakrishna legend have a unity of description
and treatment in the delineation of Krishna’s sports and the Viraha of
the Gopis. In one of his poems, he calls Vidyapati as his master. Dr.
Sukumar Sen says : “He drew largely upon classical lyrical poetry for
treatment in vernacular. All the simple and complex figures of speech
and other devices known in Sanskrit rhetorics were utilised by our poet.
But the greatest achievement is metrical perfection added to musical
assonance and rhythmic movement. For this the poet had to take recourse
to anuprasa (alliterations) which never marred the beauty of his poems
as it would have surely done in case of poems by an inferior poet. This
love for alliteration and assonance is not infrequently responsible for
the absence of thought. Though only the external polish is apparent in
his poems, it cannot be denied that the poet’s power of describing the
amorous sentiment and his colourful imagination were of a very high
order. The music of his verses and rhythmic diction of his language, full
of tatsama and semi-tatsama words and forms, compensates for everything.
The poet modelled his songs after those of Vidyapati.... He has written
on the psychological aspect and on all different topics of the love story
of Radhakrishna. Musical word painting was his forte. Nevertheless in
the depiction of the passion and the disappointment of love and its
intensity, he has really very few equals. His songs become really
enjoyable” {History of Brajabuli Literature). Sweet to the tongue and treat
to the ears, he composes his radiant songs. Dr. J. K. Mishra believes that
the beauty of some of his poems is marred by the excessive use of
alliterations and assonance and those poems, which are free from that
kind of alliteration, are superior to these.
In his poems, he deals with Mana, Viraha, Vasantalila, Rasalila,
Radhavarnana, Abhisara etc., but voluptuous songs are rarer in him than
Vidyapati. His songs are sweet, artistic and smooth in the movement of
lines and sometimes meaning is sacrificed to formal beauty in his poems.
The intensity of imagination, width of vision and the depth of feeling,
that we have in Vidyapati are not so great and forceful in Govindadasa
and the difference between the two iswell marked. Vidyapati is
sophisticated in the use of metaphors and imagery and creates a happy
atmosphere of joys and sorrows to the extent that he enters the sentiment
of people at large, irrespective of everything, in simple language. As
opposed to this, Govindadasa prefers to play upon the sound and
meaning of letters and his straightforwardness is erotically devotional
with the result that at times his most sensuous language, though
displaying the emotion of a poetic artist, becomes obscure which could
be enjoyed not by all but only by a devout heart. There has hardly been
any such successful carrier of musical words as Govindadasa. In the
following song, Radha, in the unhappiness of her separation from
Krishna, wishes that she might die, and her body might dissolve with
the five elements.
“Let my body become the dust on the path my lord treads
Let it become the mirror wherein he beholds his face
May the conflict between separation and death be over,
May death unite me with Krishna
Let my body become the water in the pool where he bathes
Let it become the golden breeze that fans his body
Let my body surround him like the sky wherever heroams, a
blue cloud.”
His lyrical songs bear the impression of his vast learning and most
of them are in a language known as Brajabuli. He had mastered the ornate
style of Maithili lyric poetry and his songs are resonant with the harmony
of sound and sense. He had also a number of imitators. As his direction
of appeal was through the heart to the ear, his success led to the speedy
degeneration of Vaishnava poetry. Govindadasa is a name to conjure
with in the history of Maithili poetry after Vidyapati.
LOCHANA
Lochana Kavi is known to us for his famous work ‘Ragatarangini’.
Maharaja Mahinath Thakur of the Khandawala dynasty, a great poet
himself and a lover of Maithili language, was his patron. It was at the
hands of Lochana that Maithili lyrics once again rose to the height of
glory. From the literary point of view, the reign of Mahinath Thakur
bears close resemblance to that of Sivasimha and Kamsanarayana.
Lochana heralded the beginning of a new era in Maithili poetry. Besides
being a poet, he was a great authority on music. He compiled his RT for
the pleasure of Narapati Thakur and in that very work, he has sung in
praise of the rulers of the Khandawala dynasty from Mahesha Thakur
to Mahinatha Thakur. He was also taken as a Bengali but Dr. Subhadra
Jha has finally settled the question of his nativity for good. The RT
occupies a unique place in the history of the Mithila School of Music
besides its being an important source for the study of a large number of
Maithili and Hindi poets who are otherwise unknown. There are nine
songs by Lochana himself. He was conversant with the then form of
Hindi language which he describes as Madhyadesibhasha but his preference
rather love for Maithili is only natural.
He composed songs in Maithili and regarded them as important as
that of Vidyapati but in spite of his tall claims, he remains an ordinary
poet and his lyrics are of the usual erotic nature. His unique contribution
lies in his study of the structure and the prosody of the Maithili lyrics. It
was he who for the first time distinguished the various moods and
melodies of the Mithila School of Music and defined Ragas and Raginis
on the basis of metres or Chandas. To illustrate the Ragas, the songs of
about forty poets have been collected and quoted. That way the RT serves
as an evidence of the development of art and literature from Vidyapati
to Lochana. Forty five songs of Vidyapati are collected therein. He has
also given us a chronological account of the poets of Mithila. The
successors of Vidyapati lived as poets but, of course, without the glory
of the master.
IV
Khandawala rulers:
The establishment of the Khandwala dynasty under Mahesha
Thakur marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the Maithili
literature. The rulers of this dynasty were great poets and scholars
themselves. They also patronised men of arts and letters and music. They
revived the literary traditions of the Karnatas and the Oinwaras and
encouraged the cultivation of poetry and music. We have seen above the
achievements of Mahesha Thakur as a poet. Keeping with the tradition
of the family, Maharaja Mahinatha Thakur, a great poet and scholar,
also composed poems. When one of his brothers, Narapati Thakur, went
on a campaign against some turbulent chief, Mahinatha Thakur
composed devotional songs in praise of Goddess Kali praying for the
safety of his brother. He was a great lover of Maithili language. Lochana
Kavi flourished in his court. Narapati Thakur was also an expert in music
and poetry. The RT was compiled for his pleasure. Though the literary
activity continued till the end of this dynasty, the glory that was Mithila
of the Karnatas and Oinwaras sank into insignificance resulting in the
decline of literary glory. The growing influence of Brajabhasha in this
region in the middle ages gave a set back to the Maithili literature.
Lochana was enamoured of it and its use became more pronounced after
the reign of Maharaja Raghavasimha. The growing popularity of
Brajabhasha was due to the fact that it was associated with the birth-place
of Krishna, whose legends grew popular in the middle ages in the wake
of the growing Vaishnava faith. The mixture of Brajabhasha and Maithili
gave birth to a new hybrid or mongrel language to which we shall revert
to shortly.
V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The medieval period was the golden age in the literary history of
Mithila since many of the illustrious names in the field of literature,
philosophy, Smriti, etc. flourished during this period. Not only Mithila
but the whole of India is rightly proud of these luminaries in different
branches of knowledge. From here flowed the eternal light of learning
and the place was the much frequented resort of the refugee scholars for
centuries. Most of them were the contemporaries of Vidyapati and some
of them his worthy successors. In spite of the wise statesmanship and
consummate skill, the Karnatas and the Oinwaras could not keep the
conquerors off for a very long time and even when their political
sovereignty was a thing of the past, they succeeded in maintaining their
cultural tradition to a great extent. The people of Mithila changed with
the time. Chandeshwar, the great political thinker of the period, proposed
that simply by an obligation to pay tribute to an overlord, sovereignty
does not cease.
According to Chandeshwar, sovereignty can also subsist where
overlordship consists only in demanding regular annual tribute. The
seven voluminous Ratnakaras, compiled by Chandeshwar, have greatly
influenced the social life of Mithila since his days. Attempts towards the
reorganisation of the society were made and the excessive conservatism
in this regard had, of course, some adverse effects on the later social
development. The sixteen Samsakaras of the Grihyasutras were reduced
to ten during this period. For that purpose, various Paddhatis (systems)
were compiled and they ultimately replaced the Grihyasutras. Rigours
were imposed on social intercourse among different castes and classes
and people were expected to conform to the codes laid down for the
purpose.
It was in this background that Vidyapati, his eminent contemporaries
and successors lived and wrote. The grip of the feudal age was so strong
that it was difficult for any of the writers to pronounce any ideal of
equality on the basis of early democratic character of Vaishnavism, to
which most of them subscribed mentally. The rigours of social system
stood in their way. In spite of his association with the court and
notwithstanding the impediments, Vidyapati shone like a moon on the
firmament of the literary sky of Mithila and made his homeland a real ground
for the development of sweet lyrics. It may sound strange to many that living
long before Shakespeare, Vidyapati should have shown so deep an understanding
of modern love. The secular character of his poetry cannot be denied but there is
no lack of spiritualism in his poems. It was through the medium of his sweet
lyrics that he rose to the greatest height and made his age remarkable to the
extent of its being called a golden age. He is held, even to-day, in high esteem
by all lovers of poetry and music. In describing amours, he is almost
unparalleled.
His charming mellifluous lyrics show his intrinsic greatness. His
lyrics have become a part of the lives of a whole people, the very life
blood of the Maithili speaking people. Because of the raciness and
crispness of the language, many of his lines have passed into common
speech. His lyrics are a blend of eroticism and devotion. In most
literatures, they usually go together. But in the case of Vidyapati there
was a special reason for its being so. Being hard put to reconcile on the
one hand the demand of his patrons for courtly and erotic poetry and on
the other hand the demand of society for poetry which may fortify
Hinduism against the onslaughts of Islam, he wrote primarily love poetry
but gave it a devotional character. The platonic hymns of Spenser reminds
us of the same type of poetry. Vidyapati drew his imageries from the
whole of contemporary life. He made poetry an integral part of life.
His contemporaries and successors were no match. He dominated
the scene of Maithili poetry for centuries not only in Mithila but also
elsewhere. Very few persons of his calibre are found after Vidyapati in
the whole range of Maithili literature. While his contemporaries are
eminent, the successors, with few exceptions, are without any glory. None
of them could rise to his height, though from the artistic and literary
point of view, Amiyakara, Kamsanarayana, Govindadasa are no less
important. The song composed by the above writers, are not yet available
and, hence, any assessment of their poetical qualities or genius will be
faulty and not free from doubts in the present state of our knowledge.
The tradition of the age continued unabated but without the glory of the
past.
CHAPTER—VI
The Mongrel Language
In the middle ages, Mithila was an important centre of learning and the
people from different parts of eastern India flocked to this place for the
acquisition of knowledge. Alongwith the traditional scholarship, Maithili
was also cultivated by a number of scholars who carried with them the
sweet songs and traditions of literary vernacular heritage. It has been
rightly held by B. K. Barua that Brajabuli sprung from Maithili. Though
artificial in itsnature, a very mellifluous kind of poetic language
developed in the hands of the poets of Assam and Bengal from the
fourteenth century onwards and this came to be known as Brajabuli in
Bengal and Brajawali in Assam. According to Dr. S. K. Chatterji, it is a
kind of Maithili, mixed with Bengali in Bengal and Assamese in Assam,
with some earlier Apabhramsa and contemporary western Brajabhasha
forms. Vidyapati’s influence on the poetical composition of neighbouring
states is immense and immeasurable. Through the cult of Chaitanya, the
songs of Vidyapati travelled to Assam and Orissa and in Bengal these
songs came to be written in hybrid language and that to be known as
Brajabuli. An imitation of his language created the tradition of an artificial
language followed so lovingly in the whole of north-eastern India.
The name Brajabuli was given to it as the story of Krishna’s sports
in the land of Vraja was narrated in lyrics in this artificial literary
language. The use of Brajabuli is a case of direct participation in a common
literary life in eastern India and the noteworthy agreement with Nepal
and Mithila and partly Bengal and Orissa is the religious drama which
with Brajabuli lyrics, developed in Assamese in the fifteenth century
A.D. Both in the Baragitis, Ankianatas and prose, Sankaradeva used a
mongrel language, known, as Brajabuli or Brajawali, on the mixed
Assamese or Maithili speech. That was nurtured and nourished by a
host of scholars. Grierson called this event an unparalleled circumstance
in the history of literature and described this mongrel language as a
‘bastard language’. The successors of Vidyapati in Assam and Bengal
wrote their songs in this language which almost entirely lacked the polish
and felicity of expression of the master-singer, though in appearance
they bore close resemblance. These Brajabuli songs became very popular
in Bengal. According to Rabindranath Tagore, the Vaishnava songs of
Bengal were largely mixed with Maithili. Maithili element in Brajabuli
was the direct result of Vidyapati’s influence. His language was imitated
by his followers in the whole of eastern India. Brajabuli has been rightly
described as a “Mongrel Language”, unnatural and incorrect but used
extensively by the Vaishnava singers in composing their lyrics. This
mongrel language described by some as ‘hybrid’, was in extensive use
for more than three centuries and even in our age, Rabindranath used it
for his Bhanusimha Thakur Padavali. As a Vaishnava lingua franca, it spread
to different parts where Krishna legend was popular.
Among the best Brajabuli writers of the Vidyapati School are
Narottama (of unsurpassed devotional fervour), Balaramadasa
(unrivalled for the tender scenes of Krishna’s childhood), Jnanadasa (well
known for his elegance of style and diction) and Govindadasa Kaviraja
who with Vidyapati and Chandidasa are in the forefront of the Padakartas.
Balaramadasa exceles all Bengali Brajabuli poets and is a skilled metrician
as is evident from his ornate poetry. Govindadasa is exclusively of the
Vidyapati School and writes almost always in the Brajabuli. He is almost
the greatest after Vidyapati. In verbal harmony, he is matchless and his
alliterations almost remove his poems to the realm of music. The later
writers almost echo the sentiments of their predecessors. Govindadasa’s
songs are held in great appreciation by the people as they are in sweet
Brajabuli. In Brajabuli, we find a preponderance of Prakrit words together
with sparkling of Maithili which constitutes greatly to the softness of
the mixed tongue. The choice of Prakrit words together with some of the
soft sounding Maithili words are combined in Brajabuli in an artistic
manner. Govindadasa is a perfect master of this mongrel language and
his songs are only next to Vidyapati and Chandidasa. Though lacking in
natural mellifiuousness, his songs show a wealth of rhythmical
expression and are well known for their sweetness of language. Among
the smaller fries were. Lochana (noted for his light colloquial touch),
Kaviranjana (also called minor Vidyapati), Vasanta Rai (known for his
delicate frail music), Ananta Dasa, Yadunandandasa and others. Vasant
Rai cleverly revised Vidyapati’s poems and changed his Maithili into
elegant Brajabuli.
The Radhakrishna songs of Vidyapati cannot be dissociated from
the pervading religious idea as we see that these songs inspired the
Vaishnavas. The Vaishnava literature is essentially a literature of the people
and the creators of that heritage had fought successfully against orthodoxy and
priestcraft. They were conscious of the new strength. A revolt against the
orthodoxy and clumsiness of religious behaviour has been the birth right of the
easterns since the days of Mahavira and Buddha and the singing of Radhakrishna
songs or Nacharis in honour of Shiva in vernacular was a conscious revolt
against the social orthodoxy of the time. The Bhakti movement of the middle
ages had broken the fetters of the social autocracy. The Vaishnavas revolted
against the caste system and priestcraft. The educational institutions of Mithila
held the torch of learning immortalised by its association with Chaitanya, was
closest during the period under review. The biographers of Chaitanya says
that sometimes for the whole night, Chaitanya would sing the songs of
Jayadeva, Vidyapati and Chandidasa, explaining as he sang the relation
of soul to God referred to in these songs. The Maithila singers could not
be so vocal as their counterparts in other states because of certain
unavoidable reason.
The Vaishnava singers of Assam, Bengal and Orissa wrote their
songs in Brajabuli in which there is a preponderance of Prakrit words
together with Maithili. This melody has contributed to the softness of
the language which is singularly sweet and pleasing to the ears. The
Brajabuli brought into use a long list of words, common to Hindi. The
admixture was due to predilection of the Vaishnava singers in favour of
a dialect of Vraja and the adoption was also necessary to imitate
Vidyapati. The adoption of Brajabuli helped the exchange of ideas
between the people of that place and those of Mithila and Bengal. Actually
speaking, Brajabuli is a result of the imitation of the Maithili forms by
the Vaishnava singers. The Vaishnava poems are free from rigidness of
classical models and are prompted by a superior poetic faculty, keenly
alive to the natural rhythm of metre and expression. They freed
themselves from the trammels of the old and stereotyped metres and
thereby made the lines more artistic and rhythmical as will be evident
from the following :
“Praise be to Jayadeva, the brightest jewel of the princes of
poetry; praise be to Vidyapati, a store-house of elegant sentiments
and praise be to Chandidasa, the highest pinnacle of delicate
feeling,—who is peerless in the world.”
The lyrical tendency had its beginning and perfection in Mithila
and both Maithili and Avahatta writings of Mithila, Bengal and Nepal
confirm this view. Bengali Vaishnava lyrics were equally popular in
Mithila and Nepal and the reciprocity had been responsible for the wide
prevalence of the Mongrel language. With its archaic vocabulary and
minimum of grammar, it offered to the better equipped writers a sonorous
instrument that was almost ready-made. On account of its variable vowel
length and moraic metre, Brajabuli songs are never divorced from
melody. Bengali and Assamese writers cultivated the diction of Maithila
poets and turned them into a language, saturated by their idioms and
phrases, known as Brajabuli, a term made popular from the eighteenth
century onwards. The famous theme in these Brajabuli songs centres
round Radhakrishna.
The Brajabuli poets have some romantic glamour for the language.
They turned everything about Radhakrishna into a poetic beauty. Radha
on her love-tryst {Abhisara) is the symbol of human soul on the hazardous
way to its perfection. Their love is perfect only in those moments of
ecstasy when they loose all sense of separateness. These songs, relying
mostly on sound, defy all attempts at literal translation. To deprive them
of music is to deprive them of their essential life. Their main appeal is
through verbal music of which Vidyapati was the greatest master. The
Brajabuli literature deals with the various aspects of the Krishna legend
and the story of Radhakrishna is developed through Purvaraga (dawn of
love), Dauta (message), Abhisara(tryst), Sambhogamilana (union), Mathura
(separation), Bhavasammilana (re-union) and also through affection as
between parent and child (Vatsalya), friendship (Sakhya), devotion of a
servant (dasya), tranquility through polarisation of souls with each other
(Santa) and the ecstatic oneness of man and his mistress (Madhura). On
account of these limited number of themes, the Brajabuli poets sometime
rather often become stereotyped since their primary allegiance is to
religion and not to poetry. None of them could rise to the height of
joyousness of Vidyapati while describing the physical sensations nor
could they reach the depth of the poignant feelings of Chandidasa.
Whatever might have been the actual faith of Vidyapati, the fact
remains that he was somehow instrumental in popularising the Krishna
cult in the neighbouring provinces of Bengal, Assam and Orissa in a
peculiarly sensuous phraseology of the Puranas and developed into one
of the highest literary achievements. Dr. Subhadra Jha believes that some
of the Brajabuli songs are in pure Maithili, some mixed with Maithili,
Bengali and Brajabhasha. Govindadasa of Mithila was one of the greatest
Brajabuli poets. In Assam, Samkaradeva was responsible for the
development of Brajabuli. The direct influence of Vraja on the Assamese
Brajawali is more noticeable than in Bengal. The Baragitis (celestial songs)
have great poetie beauty, tenderness of sentiment and loftiness of
thought. Ramananda Rai was the greatest Brajabuli poet of Orissa. His
language is Maithili mixed with Brajabhasha, Bengali and Oriya. The
Oriya Brajabuli poets were also inspired by Vidyapati. According to
B.K. Barua, Samkaradeva wrote his devotional songs in an archaic speech,
because Brajabuli as a language “had less use of compound consonants,
a preponderance of vowels, an alliterative fineness of texture, and a
subtlety of implication” (History of Assamese Literature, p. 30). It was a
more flexible medium of lyrical composition with some element of
sacredness associated with this language. The Assamese Ankianatas and
Baragitis are in Brajabuli in which, in case of Assam, there is a
predominance of Maithili words. Besides being the literary medium of
the Vaishnavite poems, the Brajabuli phonetics and tracts made it flexible.
The Maithili dramas, discovered in Nepal, contain a good deal of
Brajabuli forms. Maithili with other current literary forms dominated
the scene.
The people who created the Vaishnava literature had warred against
orthodoxy. They had risen out of the stupor of ignorance of ages and
become conscious of their new strength. They broke through the thick
walls of the time-honoured institutions and opened a new vista. The
Brajabuli poems breath freedom from the rigid style of the old School.
They are free from the slavish imitations of the Sanskrit models and are
full of appropriate homely words. The poets of Mithila, Bengal, Assam
and Orissa not only made Brajabuli a fitter vehicle of tender thought but
gave scope for contributions by persons outside this linguistic group.
The spirit of freedom dominates their style of omposition and in their
description of social life. They enjoy precedence for their poetic excellence
and delineation of tender emotions.
CHAPTER—VII
Crossing the Frontier
The fall of the Karnatas and the consequent decline of the political power
under the Oinwaras sounded the death-knell of the era of independent
Hindu kingdoms in the north-eastern fringe of India and the scholars
and poets of Mithila and Bengal took shelter in Nepal. In those days, the
contact between Mithila, Nepal, Assam and Bengal was very close and
intimate. The literary refugees carried with them their cultural heritage
of superb scholarship and mellifluous poetry. Maithili, with its rich
cultural tradition, crossed the frontiers of Mithila and its finished style
and diction was carried over to Nepal, Assam, Bengal and Orissa. The
scholars of Mithila had already acquired influence in the court of Nepal
and after the establishment of matrimonial alliance between the
descendants of the Karnatas and the Mallas of Nepal, five Maithila
scholars, viz., Kirtinath Upadhyay, Raghunath Jha, Shrinatha Bhatta,
Mahinatha Bhatta and Ramanath Jha were invited to Nepal. They not
only carried with them the culture of Mithila but also their language.
The Bengali Vaishnava lyricists not only avidly cultivated the style
and diction of Maithili language but they also imitated. In spite of the
disturbed political situation, the Maithila scholars cultivated the language
with a sense of support from their patrons. The tradition of unbroken
continuity of lyrics in Mithila gave a new impetus to the Bengali lyrical
poetry. The Bengali Vaishnava poetry was an imitation, nay even
adoption, of the songs of Vidyapati and his predecessors and
contemporaries in Mithila. The developed Bengali lyric was well known
in Mithila in the days of Govindadasa. These lyrics travelled to Nepal
and became popular for their freshness of style and music. In Bengal,
Assam and Orissa, both Umapati and Vidyapati were taken as Vaishnava
singer. With the help of known imagery, they arouse the same kind of
emotions. The royal court of Nepal patronised the poets and scholars
who arrived there and they avidly cultivated the Maithili language and
rightly justified themselves as the worthy successors of Vidyapati.
(I) NEPAL
After the establishment of the close relationship between Mithila
and Nepal, eminent Maithila scholars and poets were invited to the court
of Nepal. Chandeshwara was the first Maithila to have touched the feet
of Pashupati. The Maithila Nibandhakaras were invited to frame laws and
rules. The contact between the two countries from the days of
Harisimhadeva has been very intimate and close. The Malla rulers were
great patrons of arts and letters. The long association enabled the Maithila
scholars to gain access to the court, where they introduced their
vernacular songs in the Sanskrit dramas which were staged on all
important occasions. Maithili exercised a great influence on the literature
of Nepal. The Nepalese poets imitated Maithili in their own compositions
and there grew up the sukumarasahitya or belles letters of Nepal. Maithili
was one of the languages of the Panditas of Nepal Darbar and they also
composed songs in Maithili. Even the small zemindars on the Indo-
Nepalese border (specially Morang area) patronised literary and cultural
activity. Vidyapati was a great force in Nepal and as a result of the
patronage of Malla kings, Maithili occupied the place of court language
there. The Malla kings themselves became lovers of Vidyapati and they,
themselves, not only composed songs but also inspired others to follow
their footsteps and employed the-musicians to set them to music.
Vidyapati had a host of successors in Nepal.
Jagajyotirmalla (1613-1633), a ruler of Nepal, was himself a great
poet and patron of music. He employed many Maithila musicians and
poets at his court. Jagataprakashamalla was also a great poet and a
dramatist and a number of songs, in praise of ten incarnations of God,
Vishnu and Sadashiva, are attributed to him. He was a great patron of
art and letters and one Chandrasekharasimha is believed to have
flourished at his court. Jagataparakashamalla if judged from the literary
point of view, was not a very reputed poet. Though sincere and
devotional, his poems are nothing more than a conglomeration of words
put together for the use of musicians. His songs of Shiva and Shakti are
well known but his Radhakrishna songs are conspicuous by their absence.
Only one stray devotional lyrics of Jitarimalla is known to exist.
Ranjitamalla wrote both in Sanskrit and Maithili.
Simhabhupala or Bhupalasimha, supposed to be a ruler of the Karnat
dynasty of Mithila and Nepal and author of Sangitaratnakara and
Rasarnavasudhakara is believed to be the earliest Maithili writer of Nepal.
He has been generally confused with Siddhi Narasimha. It may be noted
here that Siddhi Narasimha of Patan is to be identified with Simha
Nripati, who ruled from 1620 to 1657 A. D. His Maithili poems are
collected in the RT, He was a great Maithili poet and dramatist. A whole
Padavali is known after him. He is described as a saint or Jivanamukta,
and is believed to have employed a Maithila, Vishwanatha by name, as
his guru (or preceptor). He is described as a descendant of Harisimha.
He enjoyed great popularity as a poet. His son, Srinivasamalla, was a
great patron of art and letters and continued the traditions of his father.
The identification of Nripa Malladeva, said to be a poet, is yet shrouded
in mystery. Another ruler, Bhupatindra (1695-1722), was one of the
greatest lyric writers of Nepal. His songs are collected in a Padavali and
they have been examined by Drs. P. C. Bagchi and J. K. Mishra. These
songs, devotional in character, are on a number of subjects. His Padavali
begins with a song in praise of Shiva. His love songs are equally
efficacious and the influence of Vidyapati is evident. The influence of
Vidyapati went far beyond the limits of Mithila and the lyrics also found
expression in the dramas that were written in Nepal, with the result that
ultimately the poetic dramas of the Kirtaniyas came to be composed of
the songs alone.
Maithili acquired the status of a dignified language at Bhata-gaon,
Patan and Kathmandu. According to Dr. P. C. Bagchi, Maithili was the
medium of instruction and culture of the elites of Nepal and the songs of
Vidyapati had received natural reception at the court of Nepal. Maithili
had already made a name in the field of drama and gradually the
vernacular drama was making its headway in place of Sanskrit drama.
The earliest Maithili drama, Dhurtasamagamanataka, by Jyotirishwara
Thakur has been recently discovered from Nepal. In the early years of
the fourteenth century A. D., Sanskrit and Prakrit dominated the dramatic
scene and vernacular songs were introduced. Both Sanskrit and Prakrit
were now unintelligible and, as such, demand for vernacular drama was
getting strong. Arising out of the devotion to Krishna the dramas were
gradually secularised and vernacularised. The themes were generally
taken out of the Puranic legends. It was Umapati Upadhyaya who first
introduced vernacular in Sanskrit drama and he was followed by
Vidyapati and this practice was contiuned in Nepal. A succinct account
of the use of Maithili in the dramas of Nepal is preserved in the published
and unpublished records and we see that from 1600 A. D., vernacular
plays came to be written in a regular manner. After the Muslim conquest
of Tirhut, the cultiva tion of dramatic art was practised in Nepal with all
seriousness as a result of which the vernacular dramas gained popularity
in Nepal. Jayasthitimalla (1318-1394) was the greatest patron of dramatic
art in Nepal and the earliest Sanskrit drama is believed to have been
written in his reign. Mm. H. P. Shastri says : “Jayasthitimalla cultivated
a fine literary taste for the display of which his new position as a King of
Nepal affored him ample opportunities. He introduced the instrumental
music of Dipakaraga at royal burials. The birth ceremony of his son,
Dharmamalla, was celebrated by the performance of a four-act play
named Ramayana”. His contact with Mithila was intimate.
A Maithila dramatist, Manika, wrote the famous Sanskrit drama
entitled “Bhairavanandanataka”. It is a secular drama, the hero being
Bhairava and the heroine, Madanavati, a celestial dancer. His drama
was enacted on the occasion of the marriage ceremony of Dharmamalla.
Manika was the son of Raja Vardhana, an expert in dramaturgy. After
Jayasthitimalla, cultural activity in Nepal came to a standstill. His greatest
successor, Yakshamalla, made his mark as a conqueror and after his death
his kingdom was divided into three parts :
(i) Raimalla founded the line of Bhatagaon
(ii) Ranamalla founded the line of Banepa (Banikpur)
(iii) Ratnamalla founded the line of Kathmandu (Kantipur and
Lalitapatan)
The old Sanskrit dramatic tradition gave way to vernacular drama
and from seventeenth century A. D. onwards, Maithili drama in Nepal
came to stand on a sound footing. For about one hundred and fifty years,
Maithili drama flourished at its height in Nepal, replacing the Sanskrit
drama for all practical purposes. The growth of vernacular drama brought
in its train new technique in spite of the fact that the old framework of
Sanskrit drama continued for sometime. The language of these plays
denotes the remarkable fact that Maithili had become the literary
language. The vernacular dramatists of Nepal chose their themes from
the epics and the Puranaa. The subject matter was introduced and after
formal introduction and opening, proper acting commenced. The actors
disclosed their identity through songs. Gesticulations and actions formed
a very negligible part of the drama. The dramas, written in Nepal, were
mostly in Maithili and some of them are in mixed Newari-Maithili-
Bengali speech. Augustus Conrady has declared that Chandrakausika of
Damodara Kavi is in pure Maithili. Some current Brajabuli forms are not
unknown in the dramas of Nepal.
Vidyavilapa is the earliest Maithili drama of Nepal, written and
staged in the reign of Vishwamalla of Bhatagaon (c. 1533 A.D.). The MS
of this drama is incomplete. Another incomplete drama on the life of
Krishna, inspired directly by Jayadeva and Vidyapati, was written in
the reign of Tribhuvanamalla or Trailokyamalla (1572-1585). The name
of the dramatist is not known but the songs therein contain the bhanitas
of two poets named Ramachandra and Viranarayana. One of the songs
quoted by Dr. P. C.Bagchi is as follows :
“It is raining torrentially, I remember my friend most/Sleep
does not come to a heart that’s groaning and body charred by
separation.
I will go like a bird where I can find (him),
I will hold him by hand, fall on his feet, and embrace, to bring
him here.
I like neither sandal wood, nor a bed decorated by Kusum
flowers.
I keep myself confined to the house, yet soul wanders in all
directions.”
Henceforward, the dramatic activity grew in intensity and its scope
was widened. Jagajyotirmalla (1613-1633), a great patron of art and
letters, wrote his famous dramas, (i) Muditakuvalayaswa (l628), a very
valuable source-book for the history of the Malla kings of Nepal,. (ii)
Haragaurivivaha (1629) and (iii) Kunjabiharinataka. The last one is a
dramatisation of the events from the life of Krishna, Radha. and Gopis.
It has been published by Dr. P. C. Bagchi. The description of seasons,
nature and the conversation among the Gopis are picturesquely described
in the drama. It has certain literary merit. While Jagajyotirmalla was
himself a writer of repute in Maithili, his grandson, Jagataprakashamalla,
raised Maithili to the pinnacle of glory in Nepal. Jagataprakashamalla
himself contributed by writing devotional songs and dramas. Ushaharana,
Naliyanataka, parijataharana, Prabhapatiharana and Madancharita are
attributed to Jagataprakashamalla. They are in prose but the sweet and
small prose pieces are pure and represent the refined prose style of
Maithili in the seventeenth century A. D. Even the small verses in the
dramas are equally sweet and musical and do not lack in deep thought.
The court of Nepal certainly encouraged the cultivation of Maithili in its
highly developing stage. Its finished diction and highily ornate style
had full development in Nepal. The Malayagandhininataka of
Jagataprakashamalla is a highly developed drama. The rajavarnana is
important because it praises Shrinivasamalla, his contemporary at Patan,
in the following words:
“You are eulogised in all four corners of the world, OKing,
There is none like you in all the three worlds.
You are as pure as the water of the Ganges, and the garland of
pearls that decorates an elephant’s neck,
You are like cupid himself presiding over the sixty four phases
of the moon. Your moonlike handsome face is so comforting.”
Sumati-Jitamitramalla (1682-1697) wrote : (i) Kaliyamathano-pakhyana
(1684), (ii) Madalasaharanam (1687), (iii) Jaiminibharata-natakam (1690)
described as Ashvamedhanataka by H. P. Shastri; (iv) Gopichandranataka
(1690), (v) Ushaharana; (vi) Navadurgana-takam (1686), (vii) Bhashanatakam
and (viii) Bharatanatakam. All are in Maithili except Gopichandra (which
is in Bengali) and Bhashanatakam (which is in Newari). The language is
sweet and polite. The Bharatanatakam is the longest. Benediction to Shiva
is the common feature. His command over Maithili language is unique
and better than all his predecessors. He is well known for his fluency
and ease. He is one of the best writers of Nepal having equal command
over Newari, Bengali and Maithili. His son, Bhupatindra, was also a
prolific writer of Newari, Maithili and Bengali. His contribution to the
Maithili lyrics is unique in the sense that his songs (in his dramas) have
a variety unknown to earlier dramatists and at the same time numerous.
The action is also reported in songs and sometimes small sentences
intersperse these songs. He wrote : (i) Madhavanala (1704); (ii)
Gaurivivahanataka (1706); (iii) Pashupatipradurbhava (1711); (iv) Gapichandra
(1712); (v) Ushasharana (1713); (vi) Rukminiparinaya, (vii) Vidyavilapa
(published by the Vangiya Sahitya Parishad); (viii) Mahabharata; (ix)
Kamsabadha-Krishnacharita; (x) Kolasura badhopakhyana; (xi)
Padmavatinataka; (xii) Jalandharopakhyana; (xiii) Jaiminibharatanataka and
(xiv) Manoranjananataka.
Kumar Ganganand Singh has made study of the growth and
development of the Maithili drama in Nepal and the results of his study
are published in the new series of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
of 1924. The Vidyavilapa illustrates the Nepalese-Maithili drama at its
best and the story was one of the most popular themes in medieval India.
Kumar Ganganand Singh has summarised it in the following manner :
“In Ujjain, there was a king named Virasimha. He had a daughter
called Vidyawati. She was a very talented girl and had taken a vow of
marrying that person who would defeat her in discussion. Many princely
suitors came and went away disappointed. Her father became very
anxious on her account and decided to try prince Sundara who was
reported to be a very learned man. He sent his court poet to the royal
court of king Gunasimdhu of Kanchi (the father of prince Sundara) for
the purpose of inviting the prince to his court, prince Sundara had also,
on the other hand, heard of the beauty and accomplishments of Vidyawati
and secretly wished to woo her. He came to Ujjain without anybody’s
knowledge and pitched up his residence at the house of the garland girl
of the king. On becoming intimate with her, the prince told her his mind
and sought her help in the affair. She contrived to bring both Sundara
and Vidyawati together and from the first sight both of them became
enamoured of each other. But they did not find their course of love
smooth. The king and the queen of Ujjain came to know of the clandestine
visits, and the lovers were caught. Sundara was brought before the king
and was sentenced to the punishment of a thief. But subsequently the
court poet, who had gone to Kanchi, returned and told the king that the
captive was no other than prince Sundara, the son of king Gunasimdhu.
Upon this, king immediately released him from captivity and united
him with his daughter in marriage....”
“The story has its origin probably in the Chaurapanchasika. Sundara,
the hero of the story, is according to some, the Chaurakavi himself, to
whom the authorship of Chaurapanchasika is ascribed. There are others,
however, who say that the work was the work of Vararuchi, a Maithila
scholar. Shrijut Bharatchandra Roy wove the story into a fine poem and
it became a favorite study of both the old and the young in Bengal.
Maharaja Yatindramohan Tagore utilised the story to form the plot of
his play ‘ Vidyasundara’ and the celebrated Hindi poet, Bhartendu
Harischandra, borrowed materials from it for his work bearing the same
title.”
The drama in seven acts, is important in many ways. Besides being
a well planned work of art, having hardly any prose, it refers to the
everyday life of the people (Act IV). Entertaining songs and dialogues,
familiar lyrics and Maheshavanis are some of the redeeming features of
this play. The love story has been nicely told in a manner befitting a
finished artist. The famous (Kobara) songs, still sung in Mithila on the
auspicious occasion of marriage, find place in this drama and through
this type of song a prayer is made to Shiva to make the love of the heroine
and the hero permanent. It is interesting to note here that not only the
Maithili songs but also the typical Maithil customs had fouud their entry
into the daily life of Nepal. The depiction of character is marvellous.
Most of the characters are from the lower orders of the society. The
characters of washerwoman and gardener woman have been nicely
depicted.
The Mahabharata has also been published by the Bangiya Sahitya
Parished. It also represents the Nepalese Maithili drama at a remarkable
height. It is in twenty three acts and depicts the episodes of the great
epics. Just to summarise the narrative, Vyasa and Sanjaya are brought to
the stage. At the end of the drama, Dhritarashtra is made to lament. He
repents and invokes, the help of God saying that what is lotted cannot
be blotted. The Vidyavilapa, the Mahabharata and the the
Madhavanalakamna-mandla are in Maithili though some current Brajabuli
forms are also found in them. These dramas were the direct results of
the influence of Maithili dramas. Maithili dominated the scene of Nepal
for a pretty long time. Most of the dramas of Nepal have been claimed as
the Bengali dramas but it should be noted that they are either in pure
Maithili or Brajabuli though some Bengali froms are not unknown. Some
of them are in the mixed languages and hence they are claimed by all
the linguistic groups of eastern India.
The reign of Ranjitamalla (1722-1772) marked the zenith of Maithili
drama in Nepal as we see that during his reign large number of plays
were written and staged. Most of the dramas were in honour of his
personal deity or Ishtadevata, and were associated with different
occasions. Some of the dramas are in Bengali or in mixed Newari-Bengali-
Maithili language. Frequent use of prose distinguishes the Maithiili
drama written during the period. About twenty dramas were written in
his reign, for example : (1) Krishna-charita, (ii) Krishnakailashayatropakhyana,
(iii) Ushaharana, (iv ) Krishanacharitopakhyana, (v) Indrajayantaka, (vi)
Kolasurabadhopakhyana, (vii) Madanacharita, (viii) Ramayanana-taka, (ix)
Nalacharita, (x) Madhavanalakamakandla, and others. The plot of
Madhavanalakamakandla is very similar to Vidyavilapa and it is based on a
very popular lenged. Kumar Ganganand Singh has summarised the story
in the following manner :
“King Govindachandra of Pushpavati City had in his service a
Brahmana boy named Madhavanala. He was exceedingly handsome,
well versed in music and arts and a favourite of all. This excited the
jealousy of courtiers who influenced the King to banish him from his
kingdom. But the king did so by showing him all marks of honour.
Madhavanala went to the City of Kamavati. When he reached the gate
of the palace, he heard the music that flowed from the ministrels
accompanying the courtesan Kamakandla in her dance. On listening to
it Madhavanala remarked that the court was full of ignorant people as it
allowed the man playing at mridanga to go on although he was not
keeping time for want of his right hand thumb. The door keeper reported
the fact to the King. Curiousity led him to know what it was and he
found that it was a truth. The King, then, immediately called him to the
court and treated him with every mark of honour. The dance went on. It
kept the spectators enchanted. At this inopportune moment a wasp bit
the breast of Kamakandla. For fear lest the dance be spoilt, she managed
to scare it away with the air of her breath. No one noticed it except
Madhavanala. He became exceedingly pleased and did not hesitate a
single moment to present her in open court with all the gifts that had
been offered to him by the King. But the King took it as an insult and the
Brahmana was ordered to leave the Kingdom at once. He, however, got
a very high place in the estimation of Kamakandla. She kept him in her
house for sometime before he left the city and both of them became
exceedingly endeared to each other. When they separated, they did so
with a heavy heart and many promises of mutual love and fidelity. At
first Madhavanala had no fixed distination. On his way, however, he
met a man who was going to the court of Kamavati with a problem from
King Vikramaditya of Ujjain. Madhavanla solved it and proceeded to
Ujjain. On reaching there he wrote a love letter to Kamakandla and
received a suitable reply. Madhavanala became greatly distracted in mind
when he read in it the sorrows of a truly afflicted heart. He went over to
the temple of Mahakala and passed his night there. As a means to lighten
his heart, he wrote a couple of verses on a piece of paper. They clearly
expressed the emotions of his heart. On the next day, the King,
Vikramaditya, when he came to worship the God, saw them, and became
interested in finding out their author. The quest was unsuccessful. He
met with some incident on the subsequent day. But on this occasion, he
succeeded with the help of his courtesans in finding out Madhavanala,
the author of these stray verses. To test his love, King Vikramaditya
made him believe that Kamakandla was dead. Madhavanala died of grief.
The king then secretly sent for Kamakandla and broke to her the news
of Madhavanala’s death. She also died at this terrible news. The King,
then realised the situation and asked his vampires to bring the lovers to
life and effect their union. And it was done....”
“Like that of Vidyavilapa, this story had a very wide circulation.
We know of its antiquated MSS being available in Nepal, Mithila
and Bengal and it has also been treated in a dramatic form by
Sanskrit and Hindi authors.” There is an element of surprise in
this paly.
Pratapamalladeva of Kathmandu was a very powerful ruler who
defeated his rival Siddhi Narasimha of Lalitapur Patan. On account of
his two Maithila queens, the Maithila Panditas and scholars had free
and frequent access to his court. A Maithila, Narasimha Thakur, got the
title of Guru from Pratapamalla. Pratapamalla was a well known
composer of songs in praise of God. He got some of them inscribed on
stones. He set some of his songs to music and called himself “Kavindra”.
The Maithila composer of lyrics and Sanskrit dramatist, Vamsamani Jha,
flourished at his court. He was the author of two Maithili dramas, viz.
Gitadigambara and Muditamadalsa. In his songs, he frequently echoes
Vidyapati’s songs. The Gitadigambara was composed on the occasion of
Pratapamalla’s Mahatuladana ceremony. The play is in four acts depicting
the story of Shiva’s enticement of Parvati. The description in simple and
lucid language is superb and the suggestiveness of his style is seen in
Mana.
“Your moon like person
Has made my eyes Chakora,
It enchants and beautifies to have a look at you,
Speak to me.
Your Kohl stained dazzling eyes,
Look as beautiful
as black drone may be sitting on lotus.”
Simplicity is the hallmark of his literary style which is other-wise
highly suggestive and lyrical. He was also the author of a work on music
known as Sangitabhaskara. Under the reign of Bhupalendra Nalacharita
was written. The Abhinavaprabodha-chandrodaya, an adaptation of Sanskrit,
‘Prabodhachandrodaya’ was written in mixed Maithili-Bengali and Newari.
It is a highly suggestive work and has earned repute at the hands of
scholars. The Nalacharitasataka, referred to above, contains good lyrics:
“O, raise your lotus face smiling,
So that the twin moon may rise evenly in the Sky.
Look at the sweet night
So that the rows of lotus may bloom everywhere.”
x x x
“The sweet night is passing away
O, give up your unreasenable obstinacy.
Poet Vamsamani sing the song,
For who does not love to make such a request.
Under Siddhi-Narasimha was composed the famous drama
Harischandra, the story of which is almost the same as that of
Chandrakausika. The language of Chandrakausika is Maithili interspersed
with Bengali though Sanskrit is used for the introduction of high
personages. The dramatic instinct is present throughout the play.
Jayaramadatta of Vanepa composed Pandavavijaya of Sabhaparvanataka
in 1496 A. D. He was a contemporary of Vidyapati.
The contribution of the Mallas to the development of Maithili
literature in Nepal is immense. Even though Maithili continued to be an
important language of Nepal, its uppermost position at the royal court
receded into background after the Gurkha conquest. Nepal in the middle
ages was the meeting place of scholars from different parts of India and
the Nepali rulers utilised them in the cultivation of art and culture. The
rulers themselves were men of high culture and they not only encouraged
but also patronised learning. Major themes of songs and dramas were
based on Krishna, Shiva and other Gods and Goddesses and the
composers were indebted to the epics and the Puranas. Popular secular
songs were not unknown. It was here in Nepal that the dramatic art
developed with native wisdom and talent and though their literary and
poetic excellence in all cases were not upto the mark, they point to the
existence of a huge production of vernacular literature and music based
on the tradition of Umapati and Vidyapati. Dr. P. C. Bagchi has rightly
pointed out that the language of education and culture of the people of
Nepal was Maithili in the middle ages. The vastness of the vernacular
dramas is an evidence of the excellence of the royal court of Nepal.
Everybody was contributing his mite towards the development of
literature, music and art. It is proved beyond any shadow of doubt that
Maithili had received the most honourable place among the literary
languages of Nepal. Vidyapati was poet’s poet and his sweet songs ef
Radhakrishna not only captured but stole the heart of many outside the
linguistic unit of Maithili and that is the reason why Maithili crossed the
frontier in no time and became the medium of all the eastern states for
sometime. Wherever the Maithila scholars went, they carried with them
their culture and language and cultivated it to the extent of being called
secular in outlook and conservative in habits. Innumerable Maithili MSS
are yet unnoticed in Nepal and other places and the real assessment will
be possible only after they are brought to light and studied scientifically.
Attempts in this regard are being made and Drs. J. K. Mishra, Shailendra
Mohan Jha, Ramdeva Jha and Prafulla Kuman Moun and others are
editing, and publishing such manuscripts. Ramanath Jha has also done
some work in the field. Dhirendra and Manipadma are busy surveying
the folklore on the fringe of Nepal-Mithila borders. The ‘Mithila’(monthly
Journal published from Biratnagar, Nepal) has published a good number
of Maithili songs inscribed on stones in Nepal. A good account of the
history of Maithili literature in Nepal has been published by Prafulla
Kumar Singh ‘Moun’.
(II) BENGAL
Chaitanya immortalised the songs of Vidyapati outside Mithila and
gave them a place of honour in the whole of Vaishnava world. Grierson
has rightly observed: “…. a curious circumstance arose, unparalleled in
the history of literature. . his songs were twisted, lengthened and
curtailed, in the procrustean bed of the Bengali language and metre, into
a kind of bastard language neither Bengali nor Maithili, but this was not
all—a host of imitators sprung up— notably one Vasant Rai of Jessore,
who wrote under the name of Vidyapati in this bastard language, songs
which in their form bore a considerable resemblance to the matter of our
poet, but which almost entirely wanted the polish and felicity of
expression of the master tongue.” Outside Mithila, Vidyapati was revered
and respected as a Vaishnava and as such his songs received reverential
treatment. Assam, Bengal and Orissa regarded him as a great Vaishnava.
In almost all the collections of Bengal, we find that Vidyapati occupies a
respectable position. Jnanadasa, Narottamadasa, Balaramadasa and
Rayasekhara were greatly influenced by Vidyapati and we have
discussed in detail the whole question under the heading, “the Mongrel
Language”. In modern times, Rabindranath Tagore is the greatest
example. Rabindranath says : “Vidyapati’s poems and songs were one
of the earliest delights that stirred my youthful imagination and I even
had the privilege of setting one of them to music.” He acquired a
wonderful command over Maithili language and wrote a number of lyrics
in Maithili under the pseudonym of Bhanusingh. Bhanusingh Thakur
Padavali deals with the theme of Radhakrishna. According to
Rabindranath, the Vaishnava songs are in mixed Maithili. It was
Vidyapati who popularised the theme of Radhakrishna through the
medium of vernacular in the whole of north-eastern India when the
Vaishnavas were gaining foothold in the neighbouring regions.
Vidyapati’s sweet lyrics provided a great impetus to those who were
yearning for something popular to propogate their views. It is for this
reason that both Vidyapati and Chandidasa are highly revered and
respected in the Vaishnava world. The Mongrel language was responsible
for the popularisation of Maithili in the neighbouring states, though in a
distorted and twisted form. In Bengal, it was influenced by Bengali forms.
(III) ORISSA
From Bengal, the current Maithili forms spread to Orissa and Assam.
It was through Bengal that Maithili songs were transmitted to Oriya
language. There was a regular contact in those days between Mithila
and Orissa and if a verse in the Nepal MSS of Vidyapati’s Padavali is to
be relied upon, it may be said that Vidyapati was known to Baijjalladeva
Chauhan of the Patan State of Orissa. Baijalladeva was a great Sanskrit
scholar. Vidyapati has dedicated one of his poems to this Oriya monarch.
A reference to this fact has already been made earlier. Mm. Govinda
Thakur, a reputed author of Mithila, is said to have visited Orissa. Only
recently some MSS of Vidyapati, known as Padavali, have come to light
though their authenticity is not yet open and above board. Ramanand
Rai, the earliest Brajabuli poet of Orissa, is said to be well versed in
Maithili. His poems are considered to be the earliest specimen of
Brajabuli. The Brajabuli poets of Orissa used a good deal of Maithili
words. Damodaradasa, Chandrakavi and Yadupatidasa were greatly
influenced by Vidyapati. The peculiarities of the language of some of
the Brajabuli poets of Orissa are that the devotion is expressed in
extremely good taste. Ramanand Rai’s language is sweet and full of
words from contemporary languages. The Maithili lyrics attained highest
perfection and had their repercussions on the development of Vaishnava
devotionals as well as romantico-religious lyrics of both Bengal and
Assam and to some extent on distant Orissa as well.
(IV) ASSAM
As in Bengal, so in Assam Vidyapati was held as one of the greatest
master singers of the Vaishnava faith. The old and intimate relationship
between Assam and Mithila led to the establishment of the closest cultural
contacts between the two peoples and the result was that both the regions
were mutually influenced by each and other. In Assam, the evolution of
Brajabuli is mainly due to the connection of the peoples of Kamrupa
with those of Videha, as also to the direct contact of Samkaradeva (1449-
1568) with the speakers of Maithili. With the spread of Maithili language
in Assam, the Assamese writers wrote Maithili dramas which are absent
in Bengal. The Brajabuli is the life-blood of the Assamese literature and
at was inspired by the lyrical songs of Vidyapati. The Assamese lyrics
have two facets—Baragitis or the celestial songs and the Ankianatas or
the songs of the dramas. Like the Maithili songs of Vidyapati, the
Assamese songs have the indication of the ragas, bhanitas and dhrubapadas.
The subject matter is based on the story of Krishna. The Assamese
Brajabuli lyricists contemplate their state as servitude (dasya) while it is
friendship or even conjugal love (Pati-patnibhava) in Bengali. Radha does
not occupy any prominent place in the Assamese Brajabuli literature.
The language of the Ankianatas is more akin to Maithili.
Musicians and dramatists were welcomed from Mithila and Bengal.
A distinct class of religious dramas took its rise in Assam in the fifteenth
century A. D., a type of drama which was flourishing in Mithila and
from where its was taken to Nepal and subsequently to Assam. Both in
Nepal and Assam, the drama became quite an important feature of
literature. The influence of Maithili on the Assamese literature was
profound. We find a general agreement between the styles of prose in
the early stages of two languages. Another point of contact is the mode
of music and lyrics. The usual ragas and talas are also common to the
Assamese devotional and other lyrics.
The neo-Vaishnava revival of northern India was a gigantic
movement of dynamic force which swept everything before it like a flood
and in the replenished soil it left behind, the struggling native languages
took root and flourished. According to B. K. Barua, at first a common
language was formed at Mithila and Maithili soon became the language
of a definite literature. Through his emotional and lyrical songs,Vidyapati
made this language an eminently suitable and exclusive vehicle of
expression for the Vaishnava poets of his time. Scholars from Kamrupa
visited Mithila and learnt the medium of their dramas. It is said that
during his pilgrimages, Samkaradeva, the leader of the Assamese reform
movement, had seen Vidyapati’s successful handling of his mother
tongue. Mr. Barua observes: “It is difficult to guess why Samkaradeva
should have chosen this language (Maithili) as a medium of dramatic
expression (when he had written many books in pure Assamese verse).
His sudden departure into this language seems to be enigmatic”. Maithili
added sanctity to the character of the dramas. At a time, when printing
press was unknown, Assamese drama were being written in sweet and
chaste Maithili because of its spectacular appeal to the people. These
dramas were based on the epics and the Puranas.
Samkaradeva wrote a number of Maithili dramas of which only six
are extant, viz. Kaliyadamana, Ramavijaya or Sitasvayarm-vara,
Rukminiharana, Keli-gopala, Patniprasada and parijataharana. A miraculous
story is told by his biographer in the following manner: “A Brahmin
Pandit of Tirhut, Jagdish Mishra, went to Puri to read out the
Bhagavatapurana in the temple. In a dream, the Brahmin received mandate
from Lord Jagannatha to the effect that he should proceed to Kamrup
and read out the Bhagavata to Samkaradeva. The Brahmin searched out
Samkaradeva at Baradova (?) and read out the Bhagavata to him. The
Assamese hold that after that event, the Brahmin died. According to
another version, the Brahmin helped him in translating the Bhagavata.
There is yet another belief that Samkaradeva visited Mithila and there
he was influenced by the dramas of Umapati, Jyotirishwara and
Vidyapati.
The Assamese dramas came to be written in pure vernacular and in
the writings of Samkaradeva and Madhavananda, the Maithili element
is preponderant. Sanskrit and Prakrit continued to dominate Maithili
dramas but that was not the case with the Assamese. Samkaradeva
dispensed with Prakrit but occasionally used Sanskrit. Brajabuli was
frequently used. A vital point of difference between the Maithili and the
Assamese dramas is that in the former there is no sutradhara except in
the prologue (Prastavana) and absolutely no stage direction nor speech
by the stage manner whereas in the latter there are such directions and
speeches in Brajabuli by him every now and then throughout the whole
performance. There is only one point of resemblance and that is that
both are one-act plays. It must be said to the credit of Samkaradeva that
he was one of the earliest writers of vernacular dramas in India, though
the first vernacular drama was written by Jyotirishwara Thakur in
Mithila. Horrwitz observes that in spite of the Muslim precepts, dramatic
activity was once in full swing towards the end of the fourteenth century
A. D. particularly in Nepal and Tirhut (The Indian Theatre, pp. 176-178).
The Ankianatas of Assam have been characterised as Maithili dramas.
These are all one-act plays and they evolved out of the recital of the
Kavyas. Samkaradeva introduced a bit of gesticulations for effectively
awakening the masses against the hard core of Tantric worship. These
dramas are replete wich ragas and talas since the composers themselves
were good poets and musicians. It is in the prose portions of these dramas
that Maithili elements are preponderant while the Assamese elements
are more prominent in lyrics and songs. The subject matter is taken from
the epics and the Puranas, particularly the Bhagavatapurana. These dramas
were all religious sermons and that is why their language is devoid of
all ornamentation. The language is direct and forceful. The Assamese
poets preached Dasya and Vatsalya relationship. Samkaradeva excelled
in Dasya and Madhavadeva in Vatsalya rasa. According to Madhavadeva,
Krishna represented the eternal child and a sportive incarnation. The
Assamese reformers believed that Bhakti of Krishna alone was the way
to salvation in the Kali age and they refrained from the metaphysical
obscurity or abstruseness. The ankianatas broke all social barriers and
provided unalloyed enjoyment and they served as the most powerful
agency for the dissemination of knowledge on art, literature, morality,
religion and philosophy.
The dramas of Samkaradeva represent the best and the longest
specimens of Assamese-Maithili literature. According to A. N. Borah,
the most important specimen of Maithili drama in Assam is the
Rukiminiharananataka. It was through this drama that Samkaradeva, with
his subtle and intuitive knowledge of realities, imparted the flavour of
nationalism to the exotic materials of Vaishnava propaganda. There is
no place for baser sentiments in this drama. The prose portion of his
drama Kaliyadamana is almost the living Maithili specimen of his age.
The Keli-Gopala is based on the tenth canto of the Bhagavata.His
Parijataharana is different from Umapati’s.Umapati has more successfully
tackled the plot than Samkaradeva. Samkara-deva has ably managed
the part of Narada but he lacks in the humour of Umapati. Samkaradeva
attempts at the glorious achievement of the Lord for the sake of Gopis
whereas in Umapati it is on the act of Krishna as a husband and
Satyabhama as a wife. The part of Sakhi is unknown in Umapati. In spite
of the difference between the two, there is no doubt that Samkaradeva
was largely influenced by Umapati and Vidyapati. The Ramavijaya depicts
the episode of Sita’s Svayamvara. In Patniprasada, sacrifices and
incantations are described and direct communion with God is attempted.
Samkaradeva’s successor, Madhavadeva (1489-1596), was an
eminent scholar and poet and his contributions are of no mean
importance. He translated the work of Tairbhukta Vishnupuri. His extant
dramas in mixed Maithili-Assamese language deal mostly with the
pranks of Krishna as a child. His Arjuna-Bhanjana is entirely in long prose
passages and the Rasa-Jhummara is a glorified hymn of Krishna by Radha
on the Rasalila night. The formalities of the Sutradhara have been neglected
here. It may be noted here that Vidyapati also used a raga called
Jhummararaga in one of his songs. It represented a kind of songs sung in
chorus by a number of women. Madhavadeva wrote nine dramas. After
him Gopaladeva and Ramacharana Thakur made notable contributions
to the development of Maithili-Assamese dramas, the main themes being
the episodes from the life of Krishna. The all pervading character of
Maithili continued to influence the neighbouring regions for a pretty
long time, though in its own homeland it was loosing its pristine purity
on account of the spread of the Brajabhasha and the Brajabuli.
CHAPTER—VIII
Heritage without Glamour a
Study in Medieval Maithili Poetry
Lochana’s RT serves as an evidence of the development of poetry after
the age of Vidyapati. Maithili literature upto the middle of the 18th
century A.D. had two remarkable features—its preference for drama and
its musical qualities. In the field of poetry, poems, epics and lyrical songs
were written. The huge output is an evidence of the fact that the language
was progressing in new dimensions. The main difficulty in studying the
poetry of this period is that most of them are unpublished and even
those published are fragmentary in character. Grierson collected and
published some of them. The Maithiligitasamgraha and the Maithila
bhaktaprakasha contain some important collections of poems of the late
medieval period.
The unpublished anthologies like the Magrauni MSS and the Gajahara
MSS (in possession of J. K. Mishra) also contain a list of about hundred
authors of the period. The “Ratnakara” of Shyamalal Chaudhary (my
grandfather), now being scientifically edited by Shrimati Shanti Devi,
contains a large number of songs by various Maithila poets of the late
medieval period, some of whom are now otherwise unknown. While in
the field of prose, the language did not make any considerable advance
over the past achievements, in the realm of poetry the forms of literary
compositions remained almost old and stereotyped with almost no
inclination to adopt any new change. The heritage was carried forward
but without any glamour of the past.
Imageries and descriptive style combined with highly sophisticated
ideas were the remnants of the earlier poetic tradition. The poets of the
late medieval period tried to imitate them with or without success. The
tradition of Bhajana (devotional songs) marks the beginning of a new
type of Maithili poetry during this period. The Vaishnavite Puranaa and
the epics continued to influence the poets and the period is marked by a
regular wave of translations of old Sanskrit poems of the Vaishnavite
learnings. Rasa and Sohara dominate the late medieval Maithili poetry.
Krishna legend continued to have its hold on the literary scene. Secular
poems are not unknown. Though old and stagnant, the late medieval
Maithili poetry was not completely stagnant. As a matter of fact, there
was a great literary activity during the period. Some of the poets, though
not so great as Vidyapati and Govindadasa, made notable contributions
in different branches of poetry and kept the tradition of Maithili lyrics
going. They lacked in genius, freshness and originality.
During this period, Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Brajabhasha spread
in Mithila and Maithili was bound to be affected. Brajabhasha had some
advantage over other languages on account of its association with Vraja.
Its influence can be seen from Vraja to Assam in the Krishnaite songs.
Lochana has devoted some twenty pages to the Brajabhasha songs and
some Maithili poets of the period have also composed in Brajabhasha.
The medieval dramatists also influenced the poetical activity. Sammaras
(Svyamavaras) are said to have been influenced by these dramatists.
When the influence of Vidyapati faded, both Manabodha and Nandipati
came forward and made way for long poems.
MANABODHA (THE REALIST)
Manabodha freed the language from all Prakritic affectations and
made serious attempts at the simplification of language with a view to
bringing it near to the spoken language. He is the first to attempt to
exploit the inner potentiality of the Maithili, spoken by the masses. In
his epic, Krishnajanma, his unconventional approach is unmistakable
throughout. He has borrowed his subject matter from the Puranas. He
was the real representative of the realists or reformists. Popular taste
was amply met by his writing . He bade adieu to the ornate style full of
figures of speech based on the pattern of later Sanskrit literature and
tried to write in the spoken language of the common masses. He
flourished in the eighteenth century A.D. and he was also known us
Bholana Kavi.
He may be taken as the founder of the modern Maithili literature.
He is by far the best and the most representative poet of his age. On
account of his being a realist, he has not got the prominence he actually
deserves, at the hands of the classicists and conservative school of writers.
In the medieval period, when Vidyapati’s influence was less magnetic,
fresh impulse was witnessed in the writings of Manabodha. He
influenced the development of Maithili. The magnitude of his all
pervading influence is yet to be assessed. It was as a result of his influence
that Maithili ceased to be tied down by the rigours of the ragas and raginis.
He established, beyond any shadow of doubt, that Maithili could serve
the purpose of writing a long Kavya.
In spite of his reliance on the Bhagavata and the Harivamsa, he has
judiciously avoided the use of erotic language and the sensuous side is
ably done away with. His description is vivid and displays his narrative
skill. In place of poetic flight, there is a straightforward narration. His
work is the first work of magnitude which influenced the course of latter
development of Maithili. His language approached very nearly that of
Krishnakelimala of Nandipati. Both Nandipati and Manabodha have paved
the way for the growth of narrative and long poems in Maithili. Grierson
says “Manabodha is a connecting link between the old Maithili of Vidyapati
and the modern Maithili of Harshanatha. It contains some forms which have
survived from times prior even to Vidyapati and which hence have
special interest.”
His Krishnajanma is also known as Haricharita in some of the MSS. It
is believed that he translated the whole of Harivamsa and extracts from
the same are current in different parts of Mithila. Though called
Krishnajanma, it is not only limited to his account of birth but also describes
the defeat of Jarasandha and Kamsa and contains the matter dealing
with Krishna’s childhood. Krishna came to the rescue of mother earth
when sinners were very aggressive to her. The Krishnajanma has been
edited separately by Grierson and Mm Dr. Umesh Mishra. The
Krishnajanma is recited with devotion in Mithila. His songs would appear
to be more modern enough and lack the legacy of Prakritic affectations.
As he attempted a Mahakavya, he took for his subject matter stories from
the Puranas but he handled the same in his own way. It clearly shows
the progress made by Maithili language in the eighteenth century A.D.
The racy flowing language of Manabodha is as effective as it is sonorous
and musical. He scrupulously avoided using Tatsama words in
Krishnajanma and yet it is surprising that his descriptions have not
suffered in lucidity or expression. The tendency towards the
simplification of language finds its culmination in Manabodha. A few
examples from his Krishnajanma will not be out of place here :
“When the Great Lord took birth, so thick a darkness spread,
and so fierce a rain storm began, that the very points of the compass
were forgotten, animals and birds themselves lost all sense of
direction.”
X X X
“As Krishna danced upon the Snakes, he so pounded them
that from every hood the blood flowed in torrents....”
X X X
“....He saw the wellspring of Happiness like a full-moon
surrounded by Stars. His golden diadem shone brightly, his
garments were yellow, and his teeth like the pearls found in an
elephant’s forehead .... Close to his diadem were peacock feathers,
whose eyes would put to shame an autumn lotus....”
X X X
Buchanan refers to the popularity of Manabodha in eastern Mithila
(Purnea) in the early years of 19th Century A.D. Manabodha was widely
read.
BHANJANA
Kavisekhara Bhanjana wrote a good deal of erotic poems, mostly
lyrics having fresh similes. Following Vidyapati, he also wrote Tirhuti
and Batagamni. In his description of separation, he imagines the separated
lady to have been bitten by the poisonous snakes and to have been verily
washed away in her tears. He suggests the intense pain and suffering of
the woman arising out of separation. She can save herself from the poison
by drinking the nectar in her lower lip which contains the sweetness of
the nectar. He says :
“The rainy season hath come near, my friend, what am I to
say? For my lord hath not come.
The new clouds thunder in the Sky, and the peacocks are
crying in the forest.
What advice dost thou give me now, my friend ? Who can
bear such pangs of separation.
Other damsels have sported with their lovedoves, but for me
a single night appeareth as a aeon.
Fair one, be patient. Krishna, the lord of Mathura will come
and meet thee.
Buddhilal, Rameshwar and Lal Kavi made notable contributions in
the domain of poetry in the late medieval period but very little is known
about them. Attached to the court of Maharaja Raghavasimha of
Darbhanga, Buddhilal was a great literary artist. He wrote some fine
lyrics and in one of them he has described young girl in separation from
her husband in a wonderful manner. He says : “The uncombed dark
hair of the young damsel and their face make them look like a black
snake.” Rameshwar was attached to the court of Raghavasimha. He wrote
sophisticated poems but they are only rarely found. ‘Nidhi’ (whose details
are not known at all) was an expert Lagni writer. Lai Kavi was attached
to the court of Maharaja Narendrasimha of Darbhanga and is well known
for his brilliant description of the battle of Kandarpighat. This ballad is
in mixed Hindi-Maithili Brajabhasha forms. Besides this important
lengthy ballad, he composed beautiful Soharas in Maithili. They are
regarded as excellent compositions of the medieval Maithili poetry. Both
Ramapati and Lal Kavi gave concession to popular taste and demand.
Another notable figure in the realm of poetry and drama was
Ramapati Upadhyaya, attached to the court of Maharaja Narendrasimha.
He wrote very fine lyrics in Maithili but very few of sweet lyrics are
available. They deserve respectable place in the annals of Maithili
literature. He describes Radha on a cloudy day in her swing. She is
oscillating in the air and her veil is removed and our poet likens her to
Urvasi in her aeroplane singing high up in the sky. Radha’s attraction is
enhanced by her youthful pride of beauty. Though not a successful master
of words and imageries, his lyrics are sensuous and imaginative. In one
of his songs his lover makes a request for the favour of his beloved as if
she were a Malati creeper. One of his songs treats of the pangs
experienced when soul fancies itself deserted by God :
“At first, alas, the moon faced one heard of thy virtues...
By chance, alas, the Lady saw thy moon face, and became as it
were plunged in a sea of love.
Of a sudden, alas, she heareth the song of the cuckoo in the
fifth scale ...
Alas, the tender lotus leaf becometh always quite burnt in a
moment when laid upon her bed.
Minor poets like Keshava, Harinatha, Madhava, Shripati, Mahipati,
Chaturbhuja, Chakrapani, Mangnirama, Venidatta, Parasurama,
Surasyama, Ratnapani, Babujana, Sarasakavi, Sarasarama, Jayakrishna,
Adinatha, Modanarayana, Motilal, Krishnadatta, Karna Shyama,
Karnata, Bhanunatha and many others are known to us from Grierson,
Gajahara MSS, Shyamalal Choudhary’s (of Rampatti, Darbhanga)
“Ratnakara”. Since lost in a fire at kalimpong, but songs saved as they
were copied from the original and another anthologies. Their extant
poems are collected in the above anthologies and in various publications
and manuscripts. Harinath is credited with having written Tirahuti
describing the disappointment of wife when she has to come back from
her husband’s room after the latter had fallen asleep. Madhava wrote
Barahamasa and Choumasa songs. Shripati paints the locks of the hair of
the damsel which cannot be controlled by her. Chaturbhuja was a
successful Tirhuti writer and in that very branch Chakrapani made his
name. Mangnirama was known for his great wit. He obtained two villages
from the rulers of Nepal in recognition of his wit and merit. He wrote
both in Maithili and Hindi. Few specimens of some of them are given
below as illustration of their literary achievements :
‘Some are annointing her body with sandal paste”
—Bhanunatha.
X X X
“Both minds dwell on one employment, but modesty stands
between them.” —Chaturbhuja.
X X X
“Her body is matchless and her face suffused with joy, like
the new moon rising over the summer lightening...
By her nose her playful eyes remain not steady, as bees
surround each side of the sesamum flower.”
—Sarasarama,
X X X
“The splendour of autumn moon is spread abroad. My mind
has become the Chakora, and therefore, it glided towards him.”
—Chakrapani.
X X X
“It was as if the lightning and its cloud had become incarnate
in one lovely form..... .
Har matchless eyes were like the Khanjana.....
The delights of the embraces were spread out and Banmali
thrilled with affection.” —Modanarayana.
Among the noted classicists of the period are Nandipati, Karna
Jayananda, Kanharamadasa, Gokulananda, Ratnapani, Harshanatha and
others. They had a clear bias towards the classical models and they
contributed in their own way.
NANDIPATI
Nandipati, the author of Krishnakelimala, is far more renowned as a
lyricist than as a dramatist. He wrote detached lyrics and composed
Tirahuti, Mana, Uchiti (occasional songs). Among all the medieval lyricists,
he occupies a prominent place. His imagery and vocabulary are vivid
and picturesque. In one of his songs, we find that the beloved tries to
explain the inadequacy of her lover’s sense of recognising good things
in life. The portrayal of image here is successful and our poet displays
all the qualities of a good lyricist. The following piece deserves notice :
“In the city where, the sandal tree is not known, there they
plant castor tree with honour .....
If all men praise the Karmi (a kind of vegetable leaf
grown in Mithila), are the virtues of lotus less on that account?
If a man remains in the darkness of a mountain cleft, is the
might of the Sun-diminished thereby ?”
His comparisons (quoted above) are marvellous. These associations
picturesquely and poignantly express the extreme sense of
disappointment and frustration that the beloved experienced at the hands
of her inexperienced lover. He is a finished artist and his ingenuity of
imagination goes far beyond the conventional comparison. In one of his
lyrics, he says that the hair on the abdomen should be concealed because
the serpent is meant to bite the cowife of the maiden. He realised the
human potentialities and in one of his Uchiti songs he has tried to show
that good men are known by their inner qualities of head and heart and
not by external appearances.
Nandipati is one of the most remarkable poets of the late medieval
period. His poems are associated with the Krishna legend and some of
them have poignant feelings. The first occasion on which a soul gives
itself unreservedly upto God and its misgivings are described under the
similitude of a bridal night in the following manner. The bridegroom
represents the deity and the bride the soul.
“The weight of my tresses is on the point of breaking my
naturally slim body
“I slept far ... concealing my face under my scant raiment, and
when I heard the mere name of young dalliance I rose trembling ...
The young bridegroom’s love increased, and I saw him very
frantic ...
... a lover does not understand a woman’s grief, he only seeketh
his own pleasure ...”
In another poem, a Gopi complains to Yasoda of the wantonness of
infant Krishna. Faith in God is shown as the one boat in which the
troubled sea of existence can be crossed. A Gopi is represented as asking
Krishna to ferry her across Yamuna. “The waves appear impassable and
in the midst of the stream the boat is moving to and fro.” Krishna gives
the famous lesson to the Gopis that they must come to God naked and
not ashamed and must give themselves to Him unreservedly. The Gopis
surrender. Nandipati’s power of description is simply marvellous. The
threefold lines of hair on the abdomen is described as Triveni. Dr.
Ramdeva Jha has brought out a collection of his songs known as
‘Nandipati Geetimala’.
KARANA JAYANANDA
Karana Jayananda is known to us as a renowned poet and dramatist.
He was the author of Rakumangadanataka. He occasionally composed love
songs and lyrics. He was largely influenced by Vidyapati. He wrote
Batagamni and Viraha songs. His imageries and conceptions are
marvellous and some times unique. In the following song, the grief of a
soul which fancies itself deserted by God is described :
“In all directions, I gaze, I gaze, upon the way of Hari and
there poureth from mine eyes a stream of tears. My home no longer
pleaseth me night or day; what am I to do ?
Between him and me there was not the difference of a grain of
sesamum, our very breaths were one, Yet he went away pitilessly
to a far country.
What can I say of his wisdom ?
How many days will this day remain ? Who will tell me
explain ?
O friend, the creator hath become opposed to me. Who will be
my help ?
Jayanand, the Karan Kayastha, sang, be not mournful thy
heart.
Patience is best of all. The bee will come to its home.”
All his extant poems are not known. Only a few of his songs and
poems are collected here and there in a haphazard manner. He was a
very successful poet and if the bhanitas are removed from some of his
known songs, it would be difficult to distinguish his imageries from
that of Vidyapati. His mellifluous lyrics bear the impression of a great
artist. As a dramatist, he was equally great.
KARANA SHYAMA
Flourishing in the last quarter of the 18th century and the first quarter
of the 19th Century, Karana Shyama was a great poet. His Padavali in
MSS is yet extant. His songs are in connection with the daily religious
rites of Mithila and hence they are very popular. His Maheshavanis give
in detail the various marriage customs of Hara and Gauri. The Mithila
customs, such as Naina-Yogin, Saptapadi, Gotradhyaya, Kanyadan, Chumaon,
Kobara, Mahuaka, Uchiti, etc.. are nicely depicted in his songs and some
of them are still current. In one of his poems, he gives a funny description
of a typical Maithila marriage ceremony, known as Ghasakatti (rites
connected with cutting of grass at the time of marriage). The love duel
between Hara and Gauri is also the theme of his poems. In some of his
erotic songs, he describes the love sports of Radhakrishna and the Gopis.
He also composed Soharas and Rasas.’ He falls in line with some of the
great poets of Mithila in so far as the smoothness and felicity of language
is concerned. He lacks in striking imageries. The smooth flow of language
marks the beauty of his excellent compositions. Though he is a finished
artist in many respect, he lacked in the glamour of his predecessors.
Krishnadatta Maithilai, Babujana, Ratnapani, Mahipati and a host
of others, also contributed to the development of Maithili poetry.
Babujana occupies a place of secondary importance. Though influenced
by the Brajabhasha, he succeeded in maintaining the peculiarities of
Maithili. His songs are mainly devoted to Gods and Goddesses.
Ratnapani was a careful artist of words and a great admirer of Sanskrit.
His poems are influenced by Sanskrit vocabulary and he may be treated
as a classicist. Faturilal, a village poet, composed a very lengthy song on
the famine of 1877-80. The language is mixed Hindi-Maithili but the
contents of the song are very important as they give us an insight into
the actual condition of the famine. Besides that important work, he also
wrote on the Vatasavitri festival and on the viraha of the Gopis. Among
the minor poets were Ramrupadasa, Harikant Das, Parmananda Das,
and Jayadeva Swami. All of them composed Bhajanas (devotional songs)
and poems. Vishwanath translated the stories of Mahabharata.
Gangadasa translated the Virataparva and Durgadatta Mishra translated
Durgasaptasati in Maithili. Chakrapani was a poet of some repute and
his Ushaharana is a long piece of more than two hundred lines. One of
his songs deserves notice :
“My heart brought the jasmine of love. He watered it with the
ambrosia of his voice, and clothed it with flowers. The flowers
blossomed, and the nectar exceeded therefrom, but the bee whom
I trusted, went away and live in a far country.
In the first place, I am smitten by fate, and the creator had
prevaricated with me. In the second place, my beloved is afar off,
and my bosom is empty......’
RATIPATI BHAGAT
Karana Ratipati was a Kayastha of Mithila. He was a versatile genius.
He translated Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda in to Maithili verse and that shows
his poetical excellence. This translation, now published in the Journal of
the Bihar Research Society (Vol. XLV., pp. 342 ff), is obviously one of the
most important poetical works in the realm of Maithili literature. This
Maithili translation is a poetical gift full of elegance, softness and richness
of sentiments with original diction of excellence suited to music. It is a
new literary genre of the Maithili poetry and its publication marks the
beginning of a new epoch in the history of the late medieval Maithili
poetry. As the poet flourished in the seventeenth century A. D., his
translation (which looks like cent per cent original), forms a valuable
link between Vidyapati and Govindadasa. We have discussed this
eminent poet here because the date of the available MSS goes back to the
l8th century and not earlier. We know very little about his family. His
work throws a significant light upon his erudite scholarship in the field
of Sanskrit and Maithili literatures. He has always maintained the
essential charms and sentiments of the original verses and has kept intact
the refined richness of the Maithili lyrics. A literary assessment of this
poet is yet to be made. His translation is one of the earliest of its kind. He
was a great poet and scholar. His other extant poems are not known. In
translation, he explained the purpose of his work and translated all the
major poems (prabhandas) in easy and fluent language. It seems as if he
had a unique command over the language. His style is lucid and easy.
The influence of Brajabhasha is of course there.
SAHEBRAMADASA
He was one of the renowned poets of Mithila in the late medieval
period. He became a Sanyasi and established matha at Pacharhi
(Darbhanga). He is believed to have possessed miraculous powers. He
was a great devotee of Krishna. He composed all kinds of songs in honour
of Vishnu and Krishna. He wrote in lucid and easy style. Some of his
songs are extremely sweet and melodious. Chanda Jha was largely
influenced by him and he also tried to imitate him. Sahebrama wrote
about the various incarnations of Vishnu and also about his miracles.
He describes him as the redeemer of sins. In his Rasa songs, he describes
the birth and sports of Krishna. The picturesque description of Krishna’s
sports in a sweet and lucid language is the most important gift of
Sahebramadasa to the medieval Maithili poetry. He also indulges in
pseudo-vedanta quotations. His songs are collected and published in
different collections. He was a contemporary of Maharaja Narendra
Simha of Darbhanga. He renounced the world after the death of his son.
LAKSHMINATHA GOSSAIN
Lakshminatha was born at Parsarma (Saharsa) but later shifted to
Bangaon in the latter half of the 18th century A.D. From his childhood,
he was in Yoga, Pranayama etc. He was sent to the famous in contination
Pandit Shri Ratta Jha for proper schooling. After his studies he returned
to Parsarma. He wrote both in Braja bhasa and Maithili. He had a religious
bent of mind. He studied the Vedanta philosophy. Soon after his marriage
he left his home and settled at Singheshwarasthan (Saharsa). He, then,
travelled to different parts of Maithila and Nepal and became a disciple
of Guru Lambanathswami of the Terai area. He also visited Kathmandu.
He continued his penance for nine years. He finally settled at Bangaon
and among his disciples there was one John Sahib (a European
Missionary worker). John Sahib composed some sweet Maithili songs in
favour of the Lord. Lakshminatha Gossain, under the penname of
Lakshmipati wrote in Hindi and Maithili. As a poet, he shows greater
poetic imagination and that way he is a creative poet. He wrote all kinds
of songs in Maithili.
Some of his important works are Shreekrishnaratnavali,
Krishnageetavali, Bhatattvabodha and Prasnottari (both translations from
Shankara), Guru Pachisi and Aksharachautisa etc. The late Pandit Chedi
Jha of Bangaon had written a comprehensive biography of this versatile
genius and saint. His poems are yet scattered and as such, no proper
assessment can be made at present. Pandit Chattranath Jha of Bangaon
was an important poet and author. He wrote a number of books including
Bangaon-Varnana, Sudamacharita, Draupadi Pukara, Hanumana-Ravana-
Samvada etc. He was a contemporary of Lakshminatha Gossain,
Raghubara Jha, John Sahib and others.
HARSHANATH JHA
The most important among the late medieval poets of Mithila was
Pandit Harshanath Jha. He was a great lyric poet of the medieval
tradition. His independent lyrics are found in his songs for various
occasions. His Sohara songs are marked by elaborate descriptive epithets
and choice of phrases. His mastery over the descriptions of scenes is
simply marvellous as we find in one of his Tirahuti songs. He says:
“The serpent like line of hair in the abdomen of the damsel
starts to eat her Khanjana like eyes”...
but “the poet makes it hide itself in the hills of her breast for
fear of being devoured by the Garuda in the form of her nose whose
face is conventionally supposed to be best when it is like that of
Garuda”.
These lines raise him to the highest stature as we see that the poet
here has condensed an image full of allusions to her beauty in two lines.
As a master of simple style, he is equally great. He says:
“O Annoyed one ! Donot make your heart hard, be
pleased, do not see my faults and fulfil my desires:
It is sweet spring when everybody in the world forgives
the fault of his beloved and enjoys throughout the whole night.
O, beautiful lady, give up your anger....”
His descriptions are marvellous :
“The two breasts are like golden pitchers which raise the
doubts in one’s mind if they are not the down faced drums of the
victory of cupid.”
He was one of the greatest lyricists of the nineteenth century and a
master artist whose choice of words and imageries raise him to the status
of a really great poet. One of his songs is quoted below :
“The clouds thunder without intermission and pour
continuous drops of rain. The throngs of frogs is passionate and
the lightning flasheth....
The darkness is intense and the terrible midnight of the month
of Bhado cause confusion.. ..
The Sun of the lotus of the house of Yadu rose ...
He excelled the spotless lotus leaf in beauty
......his countenance excelling the moon in beauty.”
He wrote with a vigour and made Maithili rich by his varied
compositions. The devotional and secular writings of Maganirama,
Sarasarama, Sahebarama, Lakshminatha and Harshanath and a host of
others formed a class by themselves, voicing as they did the personal
and genuine feelings of the poets concerned.
The late medieval poets had, no doubt contributed a lot towards the
development of Maithili poetry in their own way and according to the
time and circumstances. The golden years of the rule of the Karnatas
and the Oinwaras were gone and though the Khandawalas had the
satisfaction of being, to a great extent, the autonomous rulers, they had
not much of the authority of the past. It appears from the discovery of a
new Oinwara document (Mithila-Bharatii 1970, pts. 1-4) that the political
power was also shared by the Oinwaras even in the later period. The
glamour of the past was, no doubt, missing but the people did not give
up the cultivation of mother tongue. Sanskrit, even in the late period in
Mithila, did stand as impediment in the growth of Maithili but
literatteures had bagun to pay equal attention to it. In the absence of
state patronage (like that of Sivasimha and Kamsanarayana) Maithili
suffered a lot in the late medieval period but people continued writing
in their mother tongue. The Khandawalas did not do so much for their
mothertongue as their predecessor or even their contemporaries in
Morang—Saptari area had done. Maithili, during the period under
review, survived the onslaought of Persian, Urdu, Brajabhasha, Bengali
and other contemporary languages and made remarkable progress even
without state support. Majority of the available Maithili poems have been
recovered from the village folks who have kept them enshrined in their
memories. In that sense, it has always been a peoples’ language.
CHAPTER—IX
A Comfort to the Grieved
( A Study In Medieval Stage and Drama )
Drama, according to Bharata, shall be a comfort, an amusement, and a
refreshment to all those that are grieved. According to Kalidasa, drama
is an entertainment common to people of different tastes. Bhavabhuti
stands for sense and dignity in the drama. Dhananjaya calls dramatic
representation as pure expression of joy. Bharata is of opinion that all
activities are to be represented in a drama and he sponsored the idea
that in a play staged, composition should be based on local dialects. Since
drama was a representation of human life in all its aspects, Dhananjaya
suggested that in all the production, dress, action and speech should be
taken directly from the society and should be properly observed. It was
through drama that literature was democratised to a great extent. Drama
is the natural exponent of the higher form of fine art.
Nanyadeva of Mithila was one of the greatest writers of dramaturgy
and he wrote an exhaustive commentary on Bharata’s Natya-shastra. He
emphasised that spectators’ state of mind must be considered. He holds
that a dominant feeling or emotion becomes a sentiment when it is
transformed into an object of enjoyment. His Abhinavabharati is an epochmaking
contribution as it covers the whole ground connected with the
drama. He exercised a considerable influence over the writers and stage
directors of Mithila. Even after Nanyadeva, the rulers of Mithila
continued to take interest in these activities and we know that Maharaja
Subhankara Thakur (1583-1620) was the author of several works on acting
and dancing. He was the author of the famous work ‘Shrihastamuktavali’.
Upto the 18th century, Maithili literature had a special preference for
the drama and its musical qualities. The theme in most cases was the
love story of Radha-Krishna and the marriage of Shiva and Gauri. This
type of literature was carried to Nepal.
The tradition of dramatic art in Mithila is as old as the age of
Jyotirishwara, who, in his VR, has given a succinct account of the
prevalent form of dance and drama. Of late there has been a discussion
about the nature and form of the dramas in Mithila and the two schools
of thought are prominent—the one school (headed by J. K. Mishra) holds
that the Kirtaniya drama held the field while the other school (sponsored
by Ramanath Jha) opposes the above view and holds the view that there
is no such thing as the Kirtaniya drama in Mithila. He believed that the
first Maithill drama is by Jivana Jha to which we shall revert later. The
second part of his argument does not stand as the first drama in Maithili
language was written by Jyotirishwara. The Maithili drama has been
designed as Kirtaniya by J. K. Mishra since its aim is to present dramatic
performance in praise of the Lord. The dramas, discovered so far, deal
either with the episodes connected with the life of Krishna or Shiva.
These dramas have Sanskrit, Maithili and Prakrit forms and they were
written with devotional fervour. Special class of actors was trained for
the purpose. These dramas served a great purpose for the common mass.
Through these dramas, all ideas were brought to the level of the masses.
The drama represented the peoples culture. The introduction of Maithili
marked the victgry of the peoples, language in the medieval period. In
Mithila the dramatic activity reached its height in the medieval period.
There were centres of dramatic activities at different places. The influence
of Yatra-Kirtana of Bengal and Assam over the Kirtaniya drama of Mithila
cannot be denied. The Kirtaniya drama was based on the Puranic sources
and represented the prevalent customs of Maithila life and culture. It
was highly poetical and musical at the same time.
JYOTIRISHWARA THAKUR
Jyotirishwara Thakur was the first writer of a vernacular drama
entitled the Dhurtasamagamanataka. The mastery of the language, the
chaste diction and the elegant handling of metre are evidences of the
gifted talents of the author. Like the V.R, this is the oldest vernacular
drama of northern India. This is farce. The play opens with one Sanyasin
called Vishwanagara who is fraudulent knave. He has a disciple called
Snataka. The two first approach a wealthy miser called Mritangara
Thakur who refuses to give them any food on some false pretext. They
rebuke him but he refers them to the house of a pious lady. Now the
preceptor Vishwanagara had seen this lady and had fallen in love with
her. So he is happy to go to her place. She is also a great fraud. She
desires to have this good looking Sanyasin as her lover. So she is willing
to do everything to please him. He asks her to cook a number of things
for mid-day meals. While the food is being cooked, the disciple Snataka
expresses his desire to find out a courtesan of the town called Anangasena
with whom he has fallen in love. Vishwanagara also goes with him and
having found her, both of them fall out. The courtesan is much perturbed
and commends one Assajati Mishra as the arbitrator. Here ends the first
act.
Assajati Mishra is the hero in the second act. He is a great fraud and
he has a Vidushaka friend called Bandhuvanchaka. While pretending to
decide as to who should possess Anangasena, he himself falls in love
with the lady and takes her away from both. The two go disappointed.
The lady says : “Verily here is a meeting of knaves”. The third act begins
here though no indication as such is given there. Courtesan’s neighbour,
a barber, appears on the scene and wants payment for shaving her private
part. The lady says that he will have the money from Assajati Mishra.
Assajati gives him a little bit of Ganja in lieu of payment, which he himself
had received from Snataka for arbitrating. The barber ties the hands and
feet of Assajati and leaving him unconscious goes away. Then comes his
friend Vidushaka to release him.
This is briefly the story of the play. It is a typical Prahasana or farce
fulfilling all the conditions. Among the characters are a knave Sanyasin
and a Srotriya Brahmana and the lower class is represented by the barber
and the prostitute. The very names of the character arouse laughter. The
songs are interesting in the total development of the play. The mastery
over the language is remarkable. The rhythm and the chaste Maithili
diction remind us of the influence of Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda. The ragas
and talas of the songs are also mentioned. Besides being important as a
work of literary merit, the drama throws a flood of light on the social
history of Mithila and also gives us an idea of the culinary taste of the
people.
UMAPATI UPADHYAYA
Umapati was a successful dramatist. He is considered to be the
founder of the Kirtaniya drama in Mithila. He used to sing and dance
before the image of Krishna. His drama, Parijataharana, is an example of
the interest evinced by the people of Mithila in the growth of dramatic
literature. Here we have Sanskrit, Prakrit and Maithili forms. All the
songs are in Maithili. The chief merit of the play lies in the easy flow of
the Maithili language in the songs, their sincerity of feelings and their
capacity to touch the human heart. In the following song, the distress of
the soul imaginating itself to be deserted by God is allegorically depicted:
“O friend, be not unhappy. I shall but enjoy the fruit of my
own fate. Where from dost thy give up the life. Hopefully did I
bring my love to Hari, and there I obtained but disappointment. I
slept beneath the shade of a cloud....
Never again will I reveal my love......If thou moisten a stone
ten thousand times with ambrosia, never could thou soften it......”
X X X
His lyrics are the worthy specimen of the dainty poetic style and
one of his lyrics gives forth an echo of a verse of Jayadeva. He says:
“Thy face is a fair lotus, and thine eyes twin lilies be,
Thy lips are made of roses, and thy nose of sesame,
While thus thy form is compact of tender flowers alone
O, tell me why thy heart is yet a heart of cruel stone.”
Umapati wrote the drama in which songs are in Maithili. These
songs teem with allusions, each of which suggests a definite picture.
The story of the drama is as follows—
Narada presents a parijata flower to Krishna which he gave to
Rukmini. Satyabhama was enraged and Krishna sent to Indra for some
more flowers, which he refused to give. Thereupon there was a war
wherein Indra was defeated and Satyabhama was propitiated.
Narada, then, appeared and told Satyabhama if one’s dearest thing
was given away under its (Parijata’s) shadow, one got undying fruits.
Satyabhama, therefore, gave him Krishna as her dearest possession and
Subhadra gave him her husband, Arjuna. Krishna and Arjuna then
became Narada’s slaves and he put them up for sale. Satyabhama and
Subhadra purchased back their husbands for a cow each and the play
ended with generous hilarity. The plot is finished and characters are
well developed. Arjuna has a distinct role to play. The story of this drama
can be traced to the Harivamsa; the Vishnu-purana and the Bhagavatapurana.
Umapati follows the Harivamsa with only one difference that Krishna’s
assistant, in the fight with Indra, was according to him not his son,
Pradyumna, but his friend Arjuna Dhananjaya. The present Nataka is
only in one act, a speciality with all the natakas of Mithila.
Various dramatists of this name have flourished and hence there
has been a lot of discussion about his date and authenticity. Aufrecht
mentions fourteen Umapatis. Grierson has rightly placed him in the first
quarter of the fourteenth century A. D. Mm. Umesh Mishra has found
linguistic and literary arguments to place Umapati before Vidyapati. The
similarities of ideas and expression in Vidyapati are clearly marked. The
archaic features of Umapati’s language have influenced Vidyapati’s
poems. Both from the point of view of entertainment and literary merit,
Umapati’s drama is successful. The plot is well constructed and the events
follow one another in a logical sequence. The characterisation is linked
with the plot of the play. He has succeeded in producing a finished piece
of art. There is more sustained interest and compactness. Humour is the
predominating feature of this work. The predominant sentiment of the
play is heroic. His influence on the later dramatists of Mithila is immense.
The songs are in extraordinarily polished and mellifluous style and
similes are successfully used.
VIDYAPATI THAKURA
Though known all over the world as one of the greatest poets of
India, Vidyapati was a great dramatist as well. He seems to have
maintained the decorum of the original standard in his dramas.
His Gorakshavijaya is a successful drama. The speeches are in Sanskrit
and songs in Maithili. It represents the earliest known story of’ Goraksha110
Mina legend in a musical play. Another drama entitled Manimanjari is
attributed to Vidyapati. He laid the foundation of a a perfect Maithili
style. A.B. Keith ascribes the introduction of vernacular songs to
Vidyapati. This ascription is erroneous in view of the fact that both
Jyotirishwara and Umapati did it prior to Vidyapati. Vidyapati added
grace to the already existing practice. He does not seem to have been so
well known in the field of drama as in poetry.
GOVINDA
Govinda wrote the famous Nalacharitanataka, based on the story of
Nala’s exile. Sanskrit and Prakrit forms are used in this drama.
Damayanti’s distress and Nala’s repentence are nicely depicted. The
Maithili songs represent some of the poignant feelings of the play. The
success of the dramatist lies in the fact that even without any reference
to the text of the dialogue, one may get at the plot throught the songs
which so nicely depict the feelings and are thoroughly suggestive.
RAMADASA JHA
Ramadasa Jha is the author of Anandavijayanataka. In act one, the
hero Madhava is eager for his beloved when he learns of Radha’s beauty
through his friend ‘Anandakara’. In act II he with his friend, sees Radha.
Here the plot has been made a bit interesting. Anandakara, in the guise
of an astrologer, Gunanidhana, asks Radha and her friends Vichakshana
and Vachala to collect flowers for Shiva worship, and while they are
busy, both the friends appear. Radha is enchanted to see Madhava. She
begins worshipping the Lord. She feels the pangs of separation and a
Kapalika consoles her. The same condition of the hero is described in act
IV. They are ultimately united.
The description of Radha by Anandakara is nothing more than an
imitation of Vidyapati’s famous Batagamni describing the youthful heroin
on her way. This drama is an example of the Krishanite theme. It tells us
the story of Krishna’s marriage with Radha. The plot is simple but well
planned. Besides being expert in the use of Alankara, the author could
at times strike a rare lyrical note. Songs of separation are pathetic and
poignant. The play ends in union.
DEVANANDA
Devananda is also known as Kavindra. He wrote Ushaharana. Some
of the songs in the drama are moving. He was the first dramatist to use
the device of immediately translating Sanskrit portion into vernacular.
RAMAPATI UPADHYAYA
He is well known dramatist. He is the author of the famous drama
‘Rukminiharana’. The story of this drama is based on the Harivamsa and
Bhagavatapurana. It is a very interesting drama, in six acts, where Shiva
has been painted as the lord of Nritya (or Dance). Generally the Harivamsa
tradition has been followed here with slight variations. In act-I, it is
decided by King Bhismaka to hold a Svayamvara for Rukmini. In act II,
Krishna and Sishupala are proposed as groorns. When Rukmini speaks
against Krishna for his association with the Gopis, the King defends
Krishna. Ultimately it is decided to hold a Svayamvara. In act III, when
the messenger delivers an invitation to Krishna, he appears. There is
nothing remarkable in act IV. In act V, Krishna’s diplomatic behaviour
makes Rukmini uneasy. The Narada appears and advises Krishna to
elope with Rukmini. This brings to the sixth act., The climax is reached
when Krishna follows Narada’s advice and carries away Rukmim by
force. The whole thing becomes known. The situation becomes intolerable
to the Yuvaraja and then begins a fight with Krishna. The actual fight is
not shown but described. All stages of fighting are vividly described.
Eventually Krishna succeeds in taking Rukmini to his place and marries
her with due formality.
Of all the plays attributed to the School of Kirtaniya drama, the
Rukminiharananataka seems to have been written in the spirit of a devotee.
While the superhuman character of Krishna is evident here, the author
has made out a case of philosophical defence of Krishna’s action
throughout the play. The Puranic story has been weaved in a purely
Maithili colour and Maithila customs have been brought into frequent
use. The geographical outlook of the author shows that even in an age of
political decay, the scholars of Mithila had not forgotten the concept of
India as a whole. The concept of India, that is Bharata, with all its
diversification, is preserved in a song in connection with the Svayamvara
of Rukmini. There is freshness of imagery throughout the play.
LAL KAVI
As a fine composer of mixed Hindi-Maithili ballad on the battle of
Kandarpi Ghat, Lal Kavi is also the author af Gourisvayamvara. He wrote
this drama out of love and devotion to Shiva. What is remarkable is that
here in this drama Sanskrit and Prakrit have been used only for stage
direction and advancing action. Though written in devotion to Shiva,
the drama is in a poetic style where there is the preponderance af
vernacular and the songs are all tuned. It is a sort of one act play. It
describes the story of Gouri’s marriage with Shiva. The characteristic
feature of this drama is that all well known customs of Mithila have
been nicely and successfully depicted. The play opens with a prayer to
Gouri and after that the purpose of the play is explained by the
Sutradhara. Kamadeva appears in the back and he is ultimately destroyed
by the fire of Shiva’s third eye. Rati, wife of Kamadeva, mourns the loss
of her husband and here the dramatist has been able to put forth the
most poignant and pathetic feelings. Thereupon Gouri takes to penance
and Shiva, in a disguised form, dissuades her not to aspire for Shiva.
There is a forceful dialogue, through the medium of songs indicating
action, between Gouri and Hara. Narada appears as the Ghataka of Shiva
and ultimately Gouri’s mother agrees to the proposal. The style is
vigorous and the action is reported with the speech. Humour has its full
play in describing the family history of Shiva and the drama closes upon
a happy note.
NANDIPATI
Nandipati, a renowned poet was also a great dramatist. His Only
known play is Krishnakelimala. It is written in a long prose benediction in
praise of the sports of Krishna. Devaki is shown in labour and after his
birth, Krishna is carried to Nanda and Yasoda. Krishna’s childhood is
vividly mentioned. The killing of Rakshasi, Putana, sent by Kamsa to
poison Krishna, is picturesquely described. Putana’s end is attributed to
Krishna’s superhuman powers. The Sakatabhangalila is described in a
beautiful manner. Radha’s complaints of Krishna’s pranks forms some
of the most appealing lines of the songs of the drama. The Gobardhanalila
is also described in a nice manner. In the third act, the story of stealing
Gopis’ clothes, while they were bathing, is narrated. This is a very
interesting scene as it deals with the stories of the youth of Krishna.
Gopis are seen teasing Krishna and vice-versa. While some of the Gopis
snatch away his head-dress, others beat him, scold him and so on and so
forth. The scene is bound to produce a thrilling joy in the heart of the
Gopis. Radha is always anxious to enjoy Krishna’s company and with
that end in view, she feigns to be sick. Krishna appears in the role of an
exorcist. In spite of the elders, Krishna arranges secret meetings with
Radha and enjoys her company. Radha’s longing for Krishna knows no
waiting and even an hours’ delay on the part of Krishna makes Radha
restless. She charges Krishna with faithlessness. Both of them meditate
separately over their actions and Radha realises her mistake of behaving
so apathetically with Krishna. The play ultimately ends in the union of
Radha and Krishna.
As a dramatist, Nandipati is very popular in Millhila. Badari or
Kalanidhi was his pen-name. The homely style of his descriptions is
unique in the whole range of Maithili literature. He has also used Goalari
songs in his drama. It has very few Sanskrit and Prakrit passages. It is
one of the most important vernacular plays of Mithila where the gain in
speed is immense. The action is more often reported or described. The
Sutradhara and Nati bear resemblance to the Ankianatas of Assam. All
kinds of Maithili songs have been used. Nandipati is a refined artist,
both as a poet and as a dramatist.
SHIVADATTA
Shivadatta was the author of Parijataharana and Gauriparinaya. There
is a profusion of vernacular passages in the Parijataharana. Though lacking
in the perfection of Umapati, the story here is almost the same with the
only exception that Narada is not made to sell Krishna and Arjuna here.
In the Gouriparinaya, emotions are more deeply aroused. Gouri here
has love at first sight and she practises penance to obtain Shiva as her
husband. Gour burst forth at the terrible picture of Shiva but when she
comes to know of the identity her joy knows no bounds. Here the
description is wonderful and even the water, trees and whose wife Rati
mourns animals are shaken by cupid. Shiva’s anger burns Kamadeva
whose wife Rati mourns loss in a pathetic manner. Narada appears as a
Ghataka and all typical Maithili customs are described.
KARAN JAYANANDA
He wrote the Rukmangadanataka which begins with a benedictory
song in praise of Shiva. Here we have the excellent description of the
Ardhanarishwara form of Shiva and a song in a new raga is also introduced.
He was also a great poet.
SRIKANTA GANAKA
He was the author of drama entitled Shrikrishnajanmarahasya. It
begins with the appearence of Narada at the court of Kamsa. He
announces that Devaki’s son will kill Kamsa. It is at the instance of Narada
that Kamsa put Devaki and Vasudeva into prison. The birth of krishna
is described in the second act. The darkness pf night has been nicely
described. After the birth of Krishna, the prison doors automatically open
and Vasudeva takes new born baby to Yasoda. Yasoda’s house is full of
joy. The simplicity and directness of the drama are noteworthy and
remarkable.
KANHARAMADASA
His Gourisvayamvaranataka is the most complete Maithili play hitherto
discovered. In a true Maithila style, the play begins with an invocation
to Ganesha, Gosaauni and Kamla. He then describes the birth of Parvati.
Narada announces that Gouri is destined to be married to a madman.
Himalaya’s wife Manain gets anxious at this prediction and Gouri is
made to penance for securing Shiva as her husband. Some of the scenes
are described in picturesque style. Gouri goes through all sorts of
hardship. Shiva is shown mourning the loss of Sati. Rama appears and
consoles Shiva by asking him to marry Gouri, daughter of Himalaya.
On the other hand, Parvati was determined to have Shiva alone and
none else. Both of them see each other and Shiva continues his meditation.
Then follows the birth and achievement of Tarkasura who became
difficult to control. It was later on revealed to Indra by Brahma that son
born of Shiva and Gauri could only suppress Tarkasura. Kamadeva Is
moved to influence Shiva but he is burnt by the third eye of Shiva. Rati
laments his death. Indra then approaches Shiva and the latter agrees.
Maithila customs of marriage are then described. The combination of
opposites, the grotesque and the fantastic have been successfully
depicted. Kanharama had all the requisites of a successful dramatist.
Kanharamadasa belonged to the Karana Kayastha family of Mithila.
His drama is in Slokas, Dohas, Chandas, Gitas and Kavittas etc. Like all the
Kirtaniya dramas, he does not mention his patron. The superiority of
this drama over others in Maithili has been accepted by all. He has the
remarkable capacity of arranging the threads of plot in his own unique
manner. His dramatic sense is able to produce the developed form of
Kirtaniya drama. The scenes are marked out units in themselves and
they may be treated as separate scenes or Acts. Like the Elizabethan
playwrights, he does not divide his play into Acts. He may be regarded
as one of the most remarkable Kirtaniya-dramatists of Mithila. Like many
others, his critical estimate as a dramatist and as a poet is yet a
desideratum. The Maithila marriage customs have been nicely described.
RATNAPANI
He wrote Ushaharananataka based faithfully on the account of the
Harivamsa. It is a lyrical drama having the scenes of realistic colour. The
songs arouse appropriate emotions here and there. Narada is also brought
on the scene but not as a humourist. The most important, but at the same
time unique, feature of this drama is the presence of a neutral observer
who reports the progress of the action at various places. It is divided
into parts: (i) Gouri granting to Usha, the daughter of one Banasur of
Sonitpur, the boon of getting a desirable husband in a dream on an
appointed day; (ii) On the appointed day, Usha sees Aniruddha, son of
Pradyumna and enjoys his company in the dream. She learns the identity
of Aniruddha through her friend Chitralekha. Chitralekha then arranges
to go to Aniruddha with the message of Usha. On her way Chitralekha
meets Narada who helps her to take away the hero secretly with the
help of magic.
Aniruddha then marries Usha according to the Gandharva rite and
engages in love sports with her. The news of Usha’s meeting with
Aniruddha is conveyed to Banasur who orders the gate-keepers to kill
the intruders. Usha loses courage but Aniruddha succeeds in defeating
them. Banasur takes resort to magic fight, and Aniruddha’s misfortunes
make Usha anxious. The state of her health in such a condition has been
compared to “a line of the lightning which somehow throbs with vitality.”
Narada informs Krishan about Aniruddha and Krishna goes to rescue
him. Banasura after being defeated by Krishna, goes to Shiva who comes
to his rescue. Then begins a battle between Krishna and Shiva. War of
fever is resorted to in both the camps. Then Shiva engages himself into a
personal fight with Krishna. When after realisation, Shiva retired, his
son, Karttikeya, came to the rescue of Banasur and he is drawn away
from the battle only when Gouri intervenes. Banasur accepts defeat.
Krishna pardons him and he goes away. Banasur is seen worshipping
Shiva. Ultimately marriage between Usha and Aniruddha is arranged
in a purely Maithili manner. It is a dignified play.
BHANA JHA
He wrote Prabhavatiharana in four Acts describing the union of
Prabhavati, daughter of a demon, with Krishna’s son, Pradyumn.
HARSHANATHA JHA
He wrote two Maithili plays entitled “Ushaharana” and
“Madhavananda”. ‘Ushaharana’ (same as of Ratnapani’s) is in five acts.
Dialogues are carried on in Maithili songs. He is well known for his
imagery and suggestiveness and he often in indulges in erotic songs.
His unique imaginative power is evident from the following lines :
“The mark in the face of the moon represents a fisherman who
has thrown the net of moonbeams from the moonboat in the sea of
Sky. And as morning approached, the stars and the planets are
imagined to have been taken out of the net as the fish caught in the
net are taken out by fishermen.”
Fever is described as extremely uneasy, terrible in appearance, three
faced nine-eyed and six-armed; with eyes closed with lethargy, with
hands burning, every moment yawning, and eating on every side
everybody whom he happens to see”.
Madhavananda deals with Krishna’s sports with Gopis on the basis
of Shrimadbhagavata and the subject matter is much similar to the third
Act of Nandipati’s Krishnakelimala. Harshanatha is more graceful and
elevated and his descriptions are ornate and picturesque. His songs are
exuberant and lyrical and imagination is vivid and colourful. His poetic
qualities are marvellous and he is essentially a poet of nature. His
description of winter is interesting, while the following erotic images
give a description of the Sharada-ritu :
“the Sun has left his abode and moon entered it as if he were
the second husband;
the river uncovers itself as the young damsel uncovers herself
with great hesitation.”
Mithila in the middle ages produced some notable poetic dramas,
meant to be staged. The poetical and musical features were the chief
characteristics of medieval dramas and they were inspired by religious
fervour and extreme devotion. Two varieties of drama are known to
have existed. One in praise of Krishna and the other in praise of Shiva.
Throughout the medieval period, Krishna theme dominated the scene
of poetical dramas and other literary compositions. Vaishnavism took
its place alongside Saivism.The drama seems to have been a very popular
art in Mithila and the deficiency in the branch of prose was made up by
the poetic and dramatic compositions. The themes were based on the
Puranic legends. Rukmini, Parijata, Usha, Gouri, Shiva and Krishan form
the basis of these stories. Umapati, Ramadasa, Harshanatha and
Bhanunatha stick to the rules of Sanskrit drama. They were greatly
influenced by the Sanskrit classics. Nandipati, Shivadatta, Lalkavi,
Kanharamadasa and others are well known for their Maithili plays and
are comparatively free from the classical influence. Ratnapani represents
both the trends.
In the verancular plays, there are provisions for Nandi and the
description of characters. Chandas and Dohas relieve the monotony of
the continuous singing of songs. The Sanskrit dramas were meant mainly
for the upper classes and the aristocracy while the vernacular plays were
meant for the common man who not only enjoyed the show but had the
satisfaction of being inspired by religious fervour. The vernacular dramas
are simple, natural, easy, informal and direct. Sometimes suitable songs
from other poets were also used by the actors of the playwrights. Maithili
belief, customs, rites and ceremonies are found in almost all the dramas
and these also bear testimony to their being of an indigenous character.
It was through the medium of these dramas that the torch of Maithili
literature was kept burning through the centuries. The important aspect
of this dramatic art can be seen in the Terai area of Nepal even to-day.
According to Narendranatha Das, the leader of the popular drama
in Mithila was known as Nayaka and the whole group was called Jamaita.
Nayaka played the part of Sutradhara and hero. Females did not take part
and their roles were impersonated by male actors There was no caste
restriction in the choice of actors but some minimum qualifications like
singing and gesticulations were required before one could be allowed to
join a Jamait. The performances were held at night and the stage was
nothing more then a simple platform. After the Nandipatha, the Sutadhara
used to make his appearance in his usual costume (Jama, Nima, Payjama
and a pair of sandal called Paduka) and covering himself with a wrapper
and head with a Paga (national headgear of Mithila). He had in his hand
a Phulahatha or a rod and he was accompanied by his wife, the Nati.
He not only introduced the occasion and the author but also the
play and on such occasions he also tried to display his knowledge.
Actors were limited and their introduction was given at the
beginning in the form of a song. The Nayaka (hero), Nayika (heroine),
Sakhi (friend), Narada (in different forms) and Vipata or Vidushaka formed
the stack characters of the Kirtaniya drama. In some of the plays, Sanskrit
and Prakrit were used in dialogues and the stage direction but the
vernacular songs, Chandas, Sorthas etc. also conveyed the major portion
of the themes of the plays. Details of the descriptive scene were sometimes
preceded by a song at the stage. The orchestra was specially trained in
the Nardiya forms of musical Kirtana and most of the songs were tuned
to the different ragas. The artists entertained their audience by symbolical
gesticulation, vocal and instrumental music, fun of the Vipata and songs
of the Nayaka. The important centres of such activities were Hati, Lagna,
Alapur, Sarisava, Ganhavari, and areas under the Nepal Terai.
The dramatic use of the songs seems to have begun early. Umapati
is superb in plot construction and characterisation and his description
stir the imagination of the audience who do not feel the lack of scenery.
The interest is more sustained and compact with humour predominating
all over the play. Beautiful similes are used in a novel way as a Nataraja
has been nicely described in one of the finest Nacharis of his drama. He
added charm to his drama by giving therein some of the sweetest lyrics.
We donot come across any remarkable skill of plot construction or
psychological insight. Some of the dramatists tried to imitate the earlier
lyrical tradition but without any considerable amount of success.
Devananda’s Usha and Aniruddha remind us of Miranda and Ferdinand
in Shakespeare’s Tempest. Ramapati wrote in the spirit of a devotee.
Nandipati seems to have perfected the convention of giving the names
of all dramatis personal in a song at the very beginning and after him this
became the essential part of the structure of the Kirtaniya drama. He
regards Krishna as the first God and leader of all blissful creatures. He
says that the singing of His attributes brings good upon all. His songs
are the precious treasures of the Maithili literature. Songs form the major
portion of his play and the action is more often reported in the songs.
The influence of the Ankianatas on the Kirtaniya drama of Mithila can be
traced here. The Sutradhara and Nati are made to talk. It is one of the
most attractive Maithili plays where stage direction is particularly
revealing. Maithili colour is provided all through the play.
In Sivadatta’s Parijataharana the Nati describes the entrance of
dramtais personal. He marks the stage when vernacular drama was
becoming rather a long recitation. The use of certain set of stock phrases
in prose, for describing various objects, in Nandipati and Shrikant
Ganaka, reminds us of the fact that the tradition of the VR was still alive
in Mithila. While the figurative language, or the flights of passionate or
lyrical imaginations are absent in Ganaka, the songs are melodious and
graceful. Kanharamadasa’s play is the most complete work in Maithili.
His is decidedly superior to all the Maithili dramas relating to Shiva’s
marriage. He has a marked sense of dramatic ideal and he can be
favourably compared with the Elizabethan playwrights. He has been
successful in arranging his plots well. There are various types of poems
in his play. Ratnapani, classical in form, has the richness of description.
Non-actors are seen helping the actors.
The growing popularity of music was also responsible for the growth
of drama in medieval Mithila. Some of the songs of these dramas are the
best specimens of Maithali literature. There are matters of religious
experiences, philosophical reflections on the world and on morality,
poignant introspection of the self, self anguish and yearning for
illumination in some of these dramas. They have both a sensuous and
intellectual appeal. These plays exercised a tremendous influence on the
life of the people of Mithila and led to the growth of a popular stage and
the development of music and dancing. Drama was the most effective
means of propagating the religious cult. Here we also get a glimpse of
medieval prose and poetry. Though developed out of indigenous
materials, the influence of Sanskrit dramaturgy is perceptible. Lyrical
songs preponderate and the playwrights largely use them to bring home
the message inculcated in the play. They may be termed as “lyricodramatic-
spectacle”. Through these dramatic compositions, people could
cultivate the emotional vein of personal devotion to God or even the
expressions of natural feelings of love. The dramas crossed the frontier
and entered the valley of Nepal. Typical Maithila customs like Naina-
Yogina, Batagamni and Kohvara were introduced in the dramas as a
concession to popular taste and demand. The popular taste was amply
met by Manabodha whose language approached very nearly that of
Nandipati, whose work bereft of its dramatic form, is very much like a
long narrative Kavya. Ratnapani and Harshanatha used ornate style and
they had a clear bias towards the classical models. The language as a
medium of expression, showed progress, sometimes phenomenal, but
the forms of literary compositions remained old and stereotyped.
CHAPTER—X
Era of Decadent Documentary Prose
After the golden age of Vidyapati and his successors, the Maithili literary
tradition was one of almost mechanical repetition without any sign of
originality in the realm of prose. Mithila lost her independence after
1530 A. D. and after 1556 A.D. came to be ruled by the Mughal Governors.
The Khandawalas enjoyed some sort of autonomy but without any
political authority whatsoever. The signs of political decay were also
discernible in the field of literature. The old lyrical flow in poetry or the
rimed prose was now a thing of the past. A halting prose style was
adopted not exactly for any literary production but for writing a matter
of facts documents concerning the sale of serfs etc. The study of Sanskrit
continued and the classicists continued to hold their own. The age was
one of decadent feudalism with all its concommitant ramifications. No
piece of remarkable prose is available in Maithili.
In the medieval period, prose pieces are scattered here and there in
some of the literary dramas and even they are not very remarkable. The
available papers, court judgements, sale deeds sale of serfs and the
documents relating thereto, throw sufficient light on the contemporary
social history. Most of these documents of the medieval period are in
pure Maithili while some of them are in mixed Sanskrit and Maithili.
We have an example of such literary styles in the Likhnavali of Vidyapati.
Slavery seems to have been one of the most important social factors in
medieval Mithila and an established custom. Large number of documents
relating to the sale and purchase of slaves and serfs (Bahikhata), deeds of
emancipation (Gaurivavatikapatra), contracts for the payment of debts and
their remission (Nistarapatra), agreements of daily labourers (Janaudha),
ordinary contracts (Akrarapatra), emancipation (Ajatapatra), judgements
and state papers contain prose passages. They are of a very mean quality
but they held us in arriving at the conclusion that prose was not altogether
neglected and various new forms and technique were employed by the
writers.
These documents are secular in character. They were executed in
set forms in mixed Sanskrit and Maithili and some of them are in pure
Maithili. These deeds were prepared by the Kayasthas, a secular caste,
who had specialised in this art. These documents record caste, age,
identification mark on the body of a slave, price, conditions governing
the sale and purchase, signature of the partiesconcerned and of the
witnesses. The earliest Gaurivavatika is dated 1615 A. D. relating to the
emancipation of daughter of one’s Bahia (serf type servant), when she
was married to someone else. The deed is drawn in favour of the fatherin-
law of the girl concerned and is in the nature of a deed of emancipation
than of sale. The translation of the Sanskrit portion of the deed is given
below :—
“In the Sake year 1537 (1615 A. D.) on the Fourth day of the
bright half of the month of Vaisakha, Friday, ......the daughter of
my slave, by name Padumi, fair complexioned who is married... .I
have given unto you after taking from you one rupee ... I have no
connection with her.”
The vernacular portions of such documents are very short and they
simply state facts and conditions of service, mention name of the clerks
and witnesses etc. The language portion in these documents form an
insignificant part. They are important in the sense that the “set form of the
language marks a real advance on ths syntax of the early Maithili prose.” It
must be admitted here that the matter of fact statement has little or no
interest and literary merit in spite of the archaic flavour of the style.
The use of the words “Rupaiya” or “Rupia” or “Rupya”, “Tanka” etc.
is indicative of the fact that money economy was coming into use though
feudal system was in vogue. The earliest slave sale deed (Bahikhata) is
dated in 1627-28 A. D. It is a sort of contract to serve the master in return
for money. Under such terms, slaves were bound to their masters alone.
The Maithili prose used, in those document are far removed not only
from the modern forms but also from the archaic forms of the
Gaurivavatika. What is noticeable in these deeds is the full connected
sentence in Maithili. The service contracts were generally entered into
by potters, washermen and various sorts of labourers. This system
marked a definite advance over the existing sale system where the
question of the liberty of the individual was almost unthinkable. Payment
through land came to be replaced gradually by cash nexus but even for
such cash payments, documents were written and prepared and signed
by the contracting parties. The Vrittipatras or the grant deeds also contain
some prose passages and the earliest document of this type is dated in
1763 A. D. Court judgements and Vyavasth-apatras are also important for
studying the prose style and the earliest court judgement in Maithili is
dated in 1792 A. D.
During the medieval period, Arabic, Persian and Urdu words came
to be used in Maithili and the language documents abound in Urdu and
Persian technical terms. They have hardly any literary merit.
Administrative and business letters are written in highly dignified but
persianised Maithili style. Some of the documents of the time of Maharaja
Chatrasimha are in highly persianised Maithili. The style, though ornate,
is influenced by Arabic and Persian. These documents are dry and dreary
and hardly contain any literary merit. Their importance lies in the fact
that they give us an idea of the prose style that was in vogue then. The
documentary prose, though not exclusively literary, is characterised by
brevity of statement, economy of words, simplicity and clarity of
thoughts. Though lacking in the literary flourish of the old Maithili and
the niceties of the modern age, the medieval documentary-cum-decadent
prose gives us an insight into the mind of medieval feudal writers of
Mithila. They are more the source materials of social history than the
examples of literary prose. The medieval prose was barren and no
remarkable achievement is seen in this direction. The prose of
Jyotirishwar does not seen to have been cultivated after him and that
resulted in the decadence of the old style. Some dramatists of the middle
ages tried to write some prose passages but they could not attain the
standard they aimed at.
The dramas written in Nepal, Assam and Mithila contain some stray
prose passages. According to Dr. P. C. Bagchi, there were only oral prose
passages in the opera like Nepalese dramas. Augustus Conrady, in his
study of the Harischandranrityam by Siddhi Narasimha, has found two
layers of prose—one intended for the conversation of the upper classes
and another for the lower classes. Class characterisation has been a feature
throughout the medieval period and the people of lower classes are not expected
to be competent enough to use finished language or to be expert in literary
prose. Culture seems to have been the preserve of the aristocracy, and language,
the medium of the cultural expression, was bound to be influenced as such.
Long prose passages are found in the Ankianatas of Assam. Whatever
prose passages are available to us in the dramas of Mithila, they are
simple and legible. The economy of words is practised by the composers.
From the point of view of the literary prose style, the medieval period,
in Mithila, was, to all intents and purposes, barren.
CHAPTER—XI
Throbbing Human Heart
(A Study of the Folk Literature)
The folk literature is an important branch of Maithili. Since the beginning
of the Maithili, folk literature has formed a part of it. According to Mr. S.
Thompson, the folktales exist in the memory of the people. Varied stories
are included in the folktales and literature and they are available both in
prose and poetry. They are based on the local tradition, often of
extraordinary vitality and wide distribution. The tradition of the folk
literature is as old as the Panchatantra. Works of Vararuchi and Vidyapati
contain the earliest recorded examples of folk tales of Mithila. The folk
litera-turs in Mithila is used to denote the beliefs, traditions, legends,
customs and superstitions of the people. It includes everything relating
to the life and culture of the common man. The Maithili folk literature
has been preserved through the oral tradition.
Dr. Grierson was the pioneer in bringing to light the folk literature
of Mithila through his publications, viz, Bihar Peasant Life, Maithili
Chrestomathy, Dinabhadarika Gita and Nebaraka Gita etc. Ramanand Jha
has collected, compiled and published the stories of Gonu Jha. Ram Ekbal
Singh Rakesh has collected and published the Maithili Lokegeet. Kali
Kumar Das has compiled and published Maithili Geetanjali in three parts.
Pandit Kapileshwar Jha has comipiled the sayings of Daka in four parts
(Dakavachanamrita). Bihula Gita and Kumar Brajabhanaka Gita have been
published from Madhubani. Rajapandita Baldeva Mishra and Ridhinath
Jha have collected an account of the Maithili games. Dr Tej Narain Lal
has published a scientific account of the Maithili folk songs in Hindi
language. Dr. Puranananda Das has also done a commendable work in
the field of Maithili folk literature and the results of his investigation
await publication. Dr. Brajkishore Verma of Bahera (Darbhanga) is a
mine of information regarding Maithili folk-literature, art and culture
and he has published a series of articles on the same in different Maithili
journals. His ‘Lorikavijaya’ is a story based on the Lorika legend and in
recent years he has published a number of articles on Salhesa, Naika
Banjara, Harwa Chanain Dinabhiadri and so on. His investigations also
await publication. Jayagovinda Mishra and Lakshmipati Singh have also
made goodcollection, of Maithili folk literature, but they also await
publication. A connected account of the folk literature of Mithila has
been published in two parts by Dr. J. K. Mishra of the Allahabad
University. Dr. Anima Singh has also done a scientific research on the
folk literature of Mithila, specially in the field of Samskargitas and her
book is published. Prof. Prafulla kumar Singh Moun, has published more
than a dozen of articles in Maithili on the folk literature and folklore, not
only in Mithila but also in Morang. He has brought to light many new
things in this respect. Dr. Ila Rani Singh has done the scientific study of
Maithili Lokageet in the context of its social backgroud.
A cursory glance over the vast folk literature of Mithila will convince
even a layman of the variety and its literary richness. G.A. Grierson, R.
L. Mitra, K. P. Mitra, B. K. Varma and the writer of these lines have
published various stray articles on the different aspects of folk literature
and some of them have been well received in the western world. These
songs and prose pieces have not yet been collected and scientifically
studied. Ballads or Gitakathas are very popular. The Lorika Gita is one of
the most important ballads of Maithili folk literature. Lorika has been
mentioned by Jyotirishwar Thakur in his VR. The story of this romantic
love legend has been nicely presented in the Chandayan of Mulla Daud,
who flourished in the fourteenth century A. D. Professor Syed Hasan
Askari discovered it in 1954., Lorika is the earliest ballad of the Maithili
folk literature and is very popular in Mithila even to-day. Chandayana
has since been edited and published by Dr. Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, Dr.
Lokeshnath Jha has also done a commendable work in the field of folk
culture.
Hardi (Hodrey Visaya of the Bangaon Copperplate) in the district of
Saharsa is associated with the famous Lorika ballad. The ballad is
now equally claimed by almost all the districts of Bihar, specially,
Gaya, Arrah and Darbhanga. It should be borne in mind that Lorika is
originally a folk ballad of the district of Saharsa. The story of Lorika is as
follows:
Lorika was a native of Gauda and a favourite of Goddess Durga.
One fine morning his wife, Manjara, accidentally saw him dallying with
Chanain. Versed in astrology as she was, Manjara found out that Lorika
was to run away with Chanain on that very night and she, therefore,
informed her mother-in-law about the impending misfortune that was
to overtake the family. The mother-in-law took all precautions to save
Lorika from going out. Chanain reached the spot where the meeting
was arranged and not finding Lorika marked the place with fine red
spots and called on Durga for aid. Goddess Durga came to her rescue
and prolonged the night seven times and opened a passage through
Lorika’s hut. At long last the lovers met and started for Hardi. They
were ultimately united into marriage and the cermony was performed
by Durga herself. One night while sleeping under a tree Chanain was
stung by a serpent and died. Lorika erected a funeral pyre and sat on it
with Chanain in his arms. Fire lit to the pyre stood extinguished by some
unknown power and the lover continued to sit on the pyre, though
persuaded to desist from such action. A Goddess in the shape of an old
woman, finding him obstinate in his resolve, offered to revive the dead
and thereby this love story assumed an eternal character. Chanain gained
life but was again won by a King in a game of dice. Chanain threw
challenge to the King and ultimately defeated him and recovered
everything which her husband had lost. All this took place while they
were on their way to Hardi. After being united again they reached Hardi
and were presented to the King. There Lorika did not bow before the
King who got angry at his behaviour. The King would not allow him a
place in his capital unless he accepted the occupation of a cowherd. Lorika
agreed though indignantly that he would turn a cowherd only if King’s
daughter would come out herself to milch the cows. Ultimately a battle
ensued and it continued for seven days in which the Raja suffered a lot
as Chanain had the blessings of Durga in return for the sacrifice of her
first born son to the Goddess. The Raja agreed to give half of his dominion
to Lorika if he could bring him the head of his antagonist. Lorika
undertook to do this job and on accomplishing the task he was proclaimed
the joint King of Hardi, a position which he held for twelve years. One
night Lorika happened to hear a woman weep near his palace and asked
Chanain to enquire into the cause. As she went out, she was followed
unseen by her lover. The old woman, on enquiry, revealed that she was
anxious for the return of her son who was out for more than three days.
Chanain advised to complain falsely for some ill-treatment and not about
the return of the son. Lorika, who had overheard everything, accused
Chanain of falsehood and said that if three days’ absence of a son
could make a mother weep so much, his only wife and mother might
have shed many tears during the past twelve years. The effect on his
mind was so great that he instantly left for home accompanied by
Chanain.
Cunningham gives the following version of the story: “Lorika
deserted his wife and eloped with Chanain to a place named Hardi, where
he was opposed by Raja Malwar, an Ahir, whom he conquered. Then
the two chiefs became friends and went to bathe together. When Raj
Malwar’s sheet dropped from his shoulder his back was seen to be
marked with numerous scars. On enquiry, it was revealed that Harwa
and Barba (the mythical Dusadha rulers) bit him and left these marks
when they came this way. Then Lorika declared that he would not eat
until he had met Harwa-Barba. Malwar lent him a horse which carried
Lorika to Newarpur. Harwa and Barba were then out hunting but Lorika
went after them and fought them both and killed all their followers. The
brothers then sought the aid of their sister’s son, Kumar Angar, but Lorika
killed all three, after which he returned to Hardi, where he lived happily
with his mistress. Lorika was the hero of superhuman strength and was
an Ahir.” (“Archaeological Survey of India”—XVI., pp.27-29). Veryier Elwin
collected the legends of Lorika in his Folksongs of Chattisgarh. The exploits
of Lorika are very exciting and have inspired many poets.
The story, having many morals, is yet preserved in a very longballad
full of melody and pathos. It takes full thirty six hours to complete the
narrative if it is sung with all ceremony. This is one of the finest preserves
of the Maithili literature maintained orally for the last thousand years.
The text has since changed beyond recognition though the theme of the
story continues to a great extent. In the 13th-14th century A.D., the ballad
was sung with great intensity, and was presented in the form of a Solo.
The Lorikanacha was very popular. The story also influenced the Sufi
mystics. The Lorika ballad, influenced a great section of the Indian
population. The ballad is associated with the Yadavas and it is known in
almost every part of north Indiaright from Central India to the borders
of Bengal.
The ‘Salhesdkagita’ is another important part of the Maithili folk
literature. Salhesa is a God of the Dusadhas. It is said that Salhesa was a
Dusadha and was the Chaukidara of Raja Bhimsena of Keolagarh. His
wife, Dauna Malini, plays a very important part. She belonged to Morang
and she maintained a garden. There she waited for a pretty long to get
her husband. In getting her husband, she seeks the help of five mysterious
sisters. During his watch, a thief called Chuhadmala stole a valuable
bed and a necklace belonging to Rani Hansabati, queen of Bhimasena.
Bhimaseha sends for Salhesa who is found in a wine shop. Through the
help of Dauna Malini he learns the whereabouts of the thief and the
stolen property within seven days. She takes initiative and disguises
herself as a prostitute while he disguises himself as a Nata. The thief is
entrapped and the stolen property is recovered. It is with Malin’s help
that Salhesa gets success over the thief, in a battle that ensued in course
of the undertaking. The thief is ultimately captured. Chuhadmalla is
pardoned by Raja Bhimasena. Salhesa and Malini lived happily after
that Salhesa was later deified. The text has been edited and published
by G. A. Grierson.
The Dinabhadrikagita has also been published by Grierson. The
Mushahars of Mithila worship Dina and Bhadri. They were Mushahars
themselves. They were killed by Photara possibly inspired by Salhesa.
The story is as follows:
“A magician asks the services of Dina-Bhadri of Jogiya-Jajari
from their mother Nirasoto labour for him in the fields. They refuse
on the ground that they had never lived by labouring but by
hunting, and beating him, entreat him, shamefully.... Dina Bhadri
meet their death in the course of hunting in the forest of Kataiya.
They encounter a beast Photara (Jackal) which is killed. Photara is
brought to life again and again by Salhesa. The various phases of
the story is brought to light through songs. Loose life of Dina-
Bhadri is evident from these songs. When they return in the guise
of ascetics, they are not recognised even by their mothers and wives.
They were heroes of repute and their heroic deeds are preserved
in the song. Whille we have no authentic record of the Lorika ballad,
the Dinabhadrikagita is almost complete. A study of this song also
reveals to us some aspects of the feudal social relationship. Gulami
Jata is seen helping them in conquering a Rajput Chief, Jorawar
Singh, who used to enjoy all new brides first. The wrestling match
between Gulami Jata and Jorawar Singh is very vividly described.
The picture of home is full of sweet memories and reminds one of
the home of Ulysses and their friends on their return journey. The
passages, here and there, give us a good account of joyous life. A homely
scene of the village children is simply marvellous and the language used
is fine. On the whole, the Dinabhadrikagita is a literary achievement.
Various characters are brought in and they have been successfully
depicted.
The fishermen of Mithila generally singh songs of river Kamla
(Kamlamaiyakagita). Kosi songs are more popular and some of them have
been collected and published. E. T. Prideaux, the then (1941-43) district
Magistrate of Bhagalpur, collected some Kosi songs. Shri Brajeshwar
Mallick has also collected and published the Maithili songs on Kosi. An
analytical and critical study of the Kosi songs in Maithili was published
by the writer of these lines as early as 1954 and they were well received.
The Kosi songs are more popular and have a wider appeal.
Like other parts of eastern India, the stories and songs connected
with the snake cult are very popular in Maithili literature. Dr. D. C. Sen
of Bengal was pioneer in this field. He collected and published the Bengali
version of the Bihula songs (Bihulakagita). A Maithili version of
Bihulakagita (songs of Bihula) has been published from Madhubani. The
main story in both the versions is almost identical, though in matters of
details they differ.
Vishahari was the daughter of Mahadeva who married her at the
age of twelve to Basuki Nag. As a reward for bringing Gouri (whom she
bites) to life, she gets the boon of Mahadeva that she will be worshipped
by Chand Saudagara. When Chand refused to worship her on one pretext
or the other, he began to suffer. His children were killed by serpents.
One of his sons is married to Bihula who undertakes to save him. She
undertook various measures to save her husband. Vishahari found it
difficult to bite Bala Kumar and therefore appealed to Sheshanaga to help
her and thereby she entered the room where Bala Kumar and Bihula
were sleeping. She succeeded in biting Bala Kumar and Bihula left no
stone unturned to make him alive. With the help of various Gods and
Goddesses, Bihula succeeded in bringing him to life and dedicated her
whole life to the service of her husband. She may be compared with
Savitri. From the literary point, Bihulakagita is not very charming. It is
sung in proper tune and its music and rhythm are remarkable.
Kumar Brajabhanakagita is very popular among the lower classes of
Mithila. Raja Rohanamala was the king of Puhupinagara. He had a brave
nephew named Kumar Brajabhana. The King had seven wives but all of
them were barren. The astrologers were consulted and they advised him
to request Kumar Brajabhana to bring Rani Sorathi of Kataka who was
bound to give birth to a male child. On receiving invitation, Kumar
Brajabhana, leaving his newly married wife, hurried to meet his maternal
uncle. The Raja requested him to bring Sorathi. With the help of his Guru
Gorakhanatha, he reached Kataka and took the guise of an ascetic. His
march is vividly described in the song. With the aid of magic and
supernatural forces, he fulfills his mission. Love, romance, adventure
and pathos are mixed in the song.
Gopichandakatha is also found in the Maithili folk-literature.
Gopichanda was the nephew of Raja Bhartrihari. In some accounts, he is
described as the brother of Bhartrihari. Gopichandra became a disciple
of Gorakhanatha. At the request of his mother, he went to his sisters’
place. The maid servant recognises the ascetic as the brother of the Rani.
His sister (Rani) could not bear the sight of his ascetic brother and died.
Gopichandra brought her back to life. The story is interesting and
touching.
According to Grierson, only a small fragment of Nebarakagita is
available. The song is very popular in the Nepal Terai and North Mithila.
It is the story of the two sons of Sambhu Bania. They travelled far and
wide, visited Tirthas and distributed alms. The merchant Sobha asks them
to start for Morang but the boy (Gokul Bania) began to weep on the
thought of the journey for he had only recently married and feared that
the climate would not suit him in Moranga. Yet he sent a messenger to
his father-in-law intimating his intention to leave for Morang.
Folk ballads are associated with the names of the various folk heroes
of Mithila like Bulaki Gope, Sarbinina Guara, Gudaria, Naika-Banjara, Jorawar
Singh, Dayal Singh, Bakhtawar Singh (some of his songs have been
published by me;, Dulaha, Rani Maruani, Dulara Dayal Simha and others.
Grierson takes the mixed poetry of Faturilal as the specimen of the folk
poetry. Regarding the Akali Kavitta (songs of famine) by Faturilal,
Grierson says: “It is a description of the famine of 1873-74, and was
written by a man of the people. It is worth noting this fact, for it praises
both the English and the Maharaj of Darbhanga in no measured tone. It
speaks of the native population in tones of grim...satire...that it chimes
with feelings of the people is shown by its immense popularity with the
lower orders ...the language is mixed with several Braj forms.” Faturilal’s
song is vivid and marching.
The Jata-Jatina songs constitute an important aspect of the folk
literature. The women of the lower orders sing these dramatic songs in
order to get rains (a collection of these songs has been published by me
in the Journal of the Bihar Theatres). Only women take part in this
dramatic song. They are divided into two groups— Jata and Jatin. They
argue the case for and against the marriage of Jata (the boy) and Jatina
(the girl). All these are in songs and they are very interesting. They are
united and the family life bigins. Because of the extravagance of Jatin,
Jata has to go to Morang for earning money. Jatin’s anger knows no
bounds when Jata returns without the promised gift. In the end, a prayer
is made to Indra in chorus and minor ceremonies are performed. Jata-
Jatina songs have been collected and published by Rajeshwar Jha.
The Vratakathas are also important from the literary and religious
point of view. All the important religious festivals have their own
Vratakathas. They are recited in a set language and are full of idiomatic
turns of expression. Alliterations and rhymes mark the beauty of these
Kathas or stories. They are marked by the absence of the honorific forms.
When recited, these matters of fact sentences are lively and charming
and often elliptical, crisp and short. They express the longings and desires
of women and portray the homely pictures of everyday life of the people.
They are replete with human touches. Psychological characterisation and
shrewd plot-construction are added to some of the Kathas. They are all
based on the Puranic legends. Romantic tales also form part of the Maithili
folk literature and there are innumerable tales of that nature. They are
representative of various types. They are marked by the descriptions of
the romances of the young princes aud princesses. Love and romance
are associated with chivalry and adventure—a feature very common in
the the age of feudalism. Set expressions do occur in these romantic tales.
They resemble fairy tales of other countries and are sources of delight to
the young folk. The ‘ghost’ stories are also current in Maithili.
The extraordinary devotion to Tantra and the credulous belief of
the village folk lend greater currency to ghost stories and tales about
witches. The village, Bangaon, in the district of Saharsa, is famous for
such stories.
Gonu Jha, like Robinhood, Birbal and several other of the type, is a
typical character in Maithili folklore. He has gathered round himself all
sorts of stories. The stories of Gonu Jha are collected in the ‘Gonu-Vinod’.
He is believed to have played trick upon Goddess Durga, his patron, his
mother, his wife, his son, his physician, his barber, his friends and
enemies. All such stories are humorous to the extent of being indecent at
times. He is believed to have been a courtier and acted as a jester. Some
of his behaviours are considered indecent if viewed in modern light. He
had a ready wit. In some of his stories, we have allusive idioms to the
language.
Though devoid of poetic beauty, the Vatahvana songs in Maithili are
very popular. Bhanunath Jha and Chanda Jha have composed some songs
of this type. It is a peculiar type of work. It begins in alphabetical order
and illustrates the main thought of the particular verse by a reference to
some proverbial saying from Maithili. These songs are distinguished by
great wit and humour. In Sanskrit, some of them are enchanting pieces
of love poetry but that charm is not found in Maithili. The Nainayogins
songs in Maithili are born of magic and charms in folklore.
The various songs for the different social and cultural occasions are
also important from the literary point of view. Women in Mithila
specialise in those songs and most of them have been preserved orally
and some of them have now been published. The Bhajanas are sung in
praise of Gods and Goddesses with reverence. The Nacharis and
Maheshvanis can be sung on any occasion. The devotional songs, Nacharis
and Maheshvanis have been composed by almost all the renowned poets
of Mithila from Vidyapati to Chanda Jha, A selection of Vishahara songs
was published by Grierson. The Madhusravani songs are made up of
Vishahara songs. The Maithili songs of Muharrama are also known. The
Sama songs are very popular among the young girls of Mithila. It is an
interesting festival and it begins on the seventh day of the bright half of
Kartik (November) and ends on Kartika Purnima. These songs describe
the pathetic story of Sama. Its origin has been traced to the Padma and
the Skanda Puranas. One mischievous Shudra made a false charge of
Sama’s illicit connection with an ascetic to her father Krishna. Krishna
grew furious and cursed her to become a Sama bird. With the help of her
brother Samba she was emancipated on the day of Kartika Purnima.
Saptarshi and Vrindabana attested her virtue. Sama’s husband was
Charuvaktra (or chakeva). The festival is celebrated throughout the length
and breadth of Mithila with great gusto. Numerous songs are sung in
praise of Sama. Clay-toys are made on the occasion and characters are
represented by them. The last day is the saddest day when Sama is
believed to have left the life of a bird and sent honourably to her
husband’s home. These songs ridicule the slanderer and praise the
brother. This is a very interesting tale.
The Maithili folk literature is rich in all its branches. They reflect
some of the deepest values of life. A description of the throbbing heart
can be gleaned through these songs of various specifications. The folk
literature is mainly the work of such class of persons whose identity is
not known. The dialectical variations in these songs are quite marked
and the annonymous composers made use of the language in their own
subtle and suitable manner. The Dakavachanamrita is an example of this
type. It contains aphorisms and wise sayings regarding agriculture,
astrology, and other matters of interest to domestic life. Born in the family
of Cowherds, he had the extraordinary power of prophesying and
summing up agricultural truths in terse and pithy language. He has some
similarity with the Greek poet, Hesiodas (C. 8th Century A.D.).
These songs kept afresh the memory of stirring events and historical
episodes and of the contemporary life that led to the subversion of power
of aristocracy. The simple village folk hardly knew the higher
metaphysical way of thinking but they had the first hand knowledge of
the events that occured around them and they weaved a tale or composed
a poem on that basis. The folk-tales or poems were composed by them
on the basis of their own experience. And it is on the basis of these songs
that we get an idea of the contemporary life of the people. Cultural traits
can best be traced to folk religions and rites. The folk culture is the culture
of the people. It is in the folklore that we find an expression of genuine
desires, aspiration, genius, emotions and thoughts of a people. The
culture of each age arose out of the general conditions of life and took
exchanging forms in religion, literature, music, art, learning and thought.
The description in the folktales and poems are vivid and sometimes
enchanting. The ballads are mainly occupied with the celebration of the
exploits of certain semi-religious, folk heroes. Sanctity and solemnity is
attached to their singing. These ballads express the latent desires and
cherished ideals of the communities by whom they are associated. Some
of the ballad songs are sung even today with great devotion by the people
of the lower classes in the night.
The folk songs build up a series of parallel images. They invent new
symbols and conventions in their own right as subjects of their songs.
The occasions and melodies in such songs are very important. Songs
meant for different purposes and seasons are to be sung accordingly
and any departure from the accepted convention is not allowed. Many
names of these songs are derived from the old Raga and Raginis of the
literary songs. The melodies are made by extending every syllable of
word. The women in Mithila are experts in singing them in groups. The
folksongs are as a matter of course without the bhanitas. The main theme
of these songs is mainly the frustration or disappointment in love, due
to the absence of the lover or the husband. The reasons are obviously
economic. People of the lower orders generally go out of their villages to
earn their livelihood and return only after a very long time. The wives
or beloveds generally feel the pinch of separation and a spontaneous
flow of songs comes in. These songs are associated with the various
seasons of the year. These singers follow the old poetic tradition of
describing twelve (Barahamasa), six or four months of separation. Each
month comes with its own charms and has its individual reaction on the
feelings of the separated partner. These are all love songs associated
with the months or seasons particularly attractive for lovers. While the
Phaga and Chaitra songs are colourful, the Malara and Basanta songs have
highly poetic sentiments. The Lagnis relate to the tales of women’s sacrifice
and love, such as, the story of Uttama and Jalimsingh where the lady
saved her honour by killing herself; the story of Mainavati where the
lady followed her husband who had turned an ascetic, and the story of
Narasimha who married a poor lady of village. The Samadauni songs
constitute a class by themselves. The marriage songs are the most poetic
of all the songs because they are love songs.
CHAPTER—XII
The New Awakening
The establishment of the British rule in India brought about a greater
revolution in thoughts and ideas. The most of significant things in
literature in the latter half of the 19th century and the beginnings of the
20th century were born of the impact of the west on the east. This impact
was spread over all spheres of life-religious, cultural, social, political
and economic. The immediate effect of the western learning was to
stimulate literary production. Western influence is seen in the mass of
fiction, poetry and drama, in the literature of thought and knowledge
above all in the immense journalistic literature. The influence is also
perceptible on the epics and the lyrics which, though essentially Maithila
in character and outlook, are western in form and technique. Reaction
against the western influence was also there but that proved ineffective.
The Akali Kavitta ( songs of Famine ) of Faturi Lal may be taken as an
illustration as to how western forms of speech were at a premium.
The heart of Mithila lay in her villages where the people toiled and
sang and hardly cared for the world outside. The people contented
themselves with what they had in their villages where the Cuckoo sang
in the spring, the Lotus bloomed in the autumn and the mango-groves
provided space for love-making in the summer. Throughout the middle
ages, they had busied themselves in the abstruse philosophical thinking
and had thereby disciplined themselves to a way of life which was
different from what we see today. The time changed with the advent of
the Britishers. The Christian Missionaries and Civil Servants had to play
their own part in re-educating the people and thereby bringing about a
renaissance in the field of thought and culture.
In the year 1772 A. D. Francis Grand was appointed the first Collector
of Tirhut. As early as 1772, Darbhanga became the seat of administration
for the whole of Tirhut under the East India Company as a result of
which its importance grew both as a cultural and political centre. It was
the birth place of all important literary movements of the 19th century.
It has imparted to the literature an urbanity of character and outlook.
The secular part of the work gains an upper hand in due course.
Urbanisation proceeded apace as the capitalistic economy introduced
by the Britishers struck roots and towns grew at the expense of the
villages. In spite of the growing capitalist bias, landlordism continued
to hold its sway over a major part of Mithila and the feudal outlook
continued in literature. Aristocratic patronage continued and writers
looked forward for support from the Zemindars, big and small. They
maintained poets and literatteurs at their courts.
The new trends brought in its train a new class, known as middle
class, whose rise synchronises with the establishment of the British rule
in India. The British rule conferred prosperity on the new commercial,
professional and landed interests and the new middle class was the most
virile, progressive and modern spirited section of the society. They
developed a new personality. With the rise of the middle class, the
demand for literature became more and more widespread than it had
been in the past. Culture and enlightenment were sought by a large mass
of population and democratic literature called for a standard literary
language. Maithili came to be freed, though gradually and slowly, from
the deadweight of Sanskrit and the language soon became close to
common life, colloquial, at the same time refined and elegant, lucid,
precise and yet colourful and musical. The newwriters created a style
which combined naturalness of the colloquial language with the strength
of literary language. The new influence added and modified the old
forms. Humanism marked the beginning of modernism in Maithili. New
lines of literary development were witnessed with the beginning of the
modern age. Maithili developed without any royal support. The
Khandawala rulers, though themselves scholars of repute, did not give
support to Maithili it deserved or even in the manner their predecessors
had done. English, Persian and Urdu continued to dominate the scene
and even the Khandawala rulers adopted Persian and subsequently
English as the language of the Raj. Maharaja Lakshmiswara Singh made
Hindi in Kaithi Script the official language of the Darbhanga Raj. The
result was the retardation of the growth of Maithili. The support that
Maithili had throughout the earlier period was denied to her by the last
ruling dynasty of Mithila.
The disappearance of the regular patronage relieved literature of its
many evils and enabled the writers to develop their personality
unfettered. The conditions stimulated their spirit of enterprise and proved
salutary and beneficial in many other ways in modern times. The old
devotional fervour untainted by pecuniary motive has been replaced in
modern times by the commercialisation of literature. The old ideal too
has been replaced by new ones. In a capitalist society, a writer has
naturally to sacrifice his artistic conscience to his readers’ taste. The
literature now has increasing contacts with life and with worldly things.
The Maithili writer need no longer live in the darkness and isolation of
his native medievalism. He is now a citizen of the entire modern world.
With the coming of the new awakening, new development took place in
poetry, prose and drama. The new literature had to absorb the new spirit
as a result of the western impact. New prose and journalism were born
in the latter half of the 19th century A. D. The new forms in literature
did not achieve any remarkable results in the beginning but the work of
original merit came in course of time. The original creators of the new
prose, were mostly the Pandita and hence their style was pedantic but in
no time they were replaced by persons, proficient in English language,
as a result of which colloquial language in prose and poetry became
frequent. In modern Maithili prose, even English punctuation points are
now thoroughly at home.
The introduction of English education was responsible for the new
awakening. Scholars of the older school continued to pursue their own
studies while the younger generations were very much impressed with
the genuine human feelings, charms and modernism of the English
language. The new awakening is discernible in all branches of literature
and the cultivation of mother tongue as the medium of expression of
different subjects is a basic gift of this new awakening notwithstanding
the difficulties created by the Darbhanga Raj by introducing Hindi as
the Official language. The impact of the west brought fresh impetus.
With the emergence of the humanistic ideas, not only innovations of
new forms and techniques were made but there was even a re-orientation
of new values. Prior to the advent of the Britishers. Maithili literature
was dominated mainly by the religious ideas of various denominations
and even the later dramatists drew profusely upon the vast resources of
the past lore. With the introduction of English education on a large scale,
the situation completely changed. New influences came into operation
and new developments took place.
In the beginning a large part of the literary composition retold the
old and well know stories about the Ramayana, the Mahabharat and the
Puranas but in course of time, Maithili literature did not lag behind in
putting forth new leaves on every branch. The quality of the prose during
the early British period was very small and altogether devoid of literary
merit as most of them are found in contemporary letters and legal
documents. The early clumsy, dry and decadent prose came to be replaced
soon by the colloquial language in course of time. The social novelists
show up the evils of excessive conservatism and a judicious compromise
between the east and the west has been advocated by the balanced
writers.
The vernacular larguage now came to be tackled by persons who
were proficient in English language and literature and they wrote after
the manner of their own standard work. The impact of modernism was
so great that even the classical Panditas now considered fit to write in
vernacular though the influence of Sanskrit was apparent on their style.
Now it was thought necessary to popularise Sanskrit through vernacular.
In order to display their erudite learning, they wrote in a pedantic style.
Though peculiar, it was a natural growth. The old link was no doubt
broken. One would hear the echo of Vidyapati even in medieval Maithili
poetry and the niceties and pedantry of the medieval poets proved no
barrier to the modernists in enjoying the production of the artificial school
of poetry which grew up under the circumstances natural to the soil of
Mithila. It was practically as a reaction against the growing influence of
the English that the classical panditas were constrained to write in
Maithili, and their pedantic, to the extent of being ridiculous, style
sometime proved as hindrance to the growth of Maithili. Their unwieldy
style struck a discordant note to the spirit of the langauge. Their perfect
command over Sanskrit langauge enabled them to use Sanskrit
vocabulary in Maithili. Through the efforts of these pedantic writers,
the modern Maithili prose was developed both in purity of style and in
resources of words. They had their own limitations.
(II)
The study of Maithili on modern lines was started as early as 1771
A. D. by the European scholars. In 1875, Mr. Fallon published few
specimens of Maithili in the Indian Antiquary and similar work was done
by Sir George Campbell in the preceding year. As early as 1840, Aime-
Martin in his French publication had mentioned Maithili as the language
of Mithila and Nepal. To cap all these came the valuable studies of Sir
George Abraham Griersbn, who is rightly regarded as the father of
modern Maithili studies. He published his famous Maithili Chrestomathy
in two parts which ultimately formed the basis of all later studies. He
brought about a renaissance in the realm of Maithili literature. Regarding
the sources of his information, he says :—
“They may be divided into two classes :—
(i) Forms obtained by translating into Maithili,
(ii) Forms obtained by translating form Maithili—
The first I obtained as follows:
I printed a paradigms of all the forms in Hindi and Sanskrit
grammar and circulated them as widely as possible among the
Panditas, village school masters, and educated native gentlemen
of North Mithila, with directions to give the exact translations of
each of these forms in their own native language. I was enabled,
in this way to collect some fifty most useful books of forms,
supplied by representatives of all classes of society, from the village
Guru to the most learned Panditas of Mithila. I am glad to say that
the utmost interest was taken in my design; for the people are proud
of their language and were pleased at the idea of its being made a
polite one by obtaining the honour of print......Maithili is the one
which has a literary history.”
Grierson collected a good deal af Maithili literature and published
them in various parts in the Indian and foreign journals. The whole
civilisation of Mithila is revealed to us through the vast lore of devotional
sentiment and peoples’ aspirations in the literature from the days of
Umapati-Vidyapati to Kanharamadasa. Maithili served as a perpetual
fountain of faith to the humble as well as the enlightened. Besides
Chrestomathy (in two parts), Grierson published Manabodha’s
Krishnajanma (Harivamsa Ka Gita), Dinabhadrika Gita; Nebarkagita and
Twentyone Vaishnava hymns and many shorts on riddles etc. He further
says—”Under the enlightened guidance of the Maharaja of Darbhanga,
there has been a remarkable revival of Maithili literature during the past
few years ... if an article of the Calcutta Review is to be believed, the first
translation of any portion of Bible into any language of northern India
was that of the Gospels and Acts, made into Chicka-Chiki dialect of Maithili
by father Antonia at the end of the 18th Century,” Another translation
was made by John Christians at Monghyr in the 19th century. Grierson
also published Bihar Peasant Life, Bihar Grammar, Purushapariksha of
Vidyapati and nine volumes of Linguistic Survey of India. By his
publications and also by the consistent efforts of the scholars of Mithila,
Maithili became conscious of its pristine purity, unity and glory. The
scholars of Mithila soon realised that the cultural awakening of the land
depended upon the all round development of the language. Like their
counterparts elsewhere, they turned their attention to the study and
publication of the old classics and also to the writings of the new types
of literature. In this noble work of cultural awakening, Grierson had a
major share. Grierson, Chanda Jha, Raghunahdan Das, Lal Das, Mm.
Ganganath Jha, Mm. Umesh Mishra, Pulkit Lal Das, Bhola Lal Das and a
host of other scholars, through their studies, brought about a renaissance
in the realm of Maithili language and literature.
(III)
Cultural Associations like the Maithila Sikshit Samaj (Calcutta-1919),
Maithila Sammelan, Calcutta (1923-24), Subodhini Sabha (Purnea), Maithili
Chatra Sammelan (Bhagalpur-1910, Banaras 1920, Muzaffarpur 1924, Patna
1934 etc.), Maithila Yuvaka Sangh (Purnea-l930), Maithila Yuvaka Sangh
(Araidanga and Banaras), Maithila Taruna Sangh, Prabasi Maithila Society
at Araidanga, Maldah, Agra, Hathras, Mathura, Jubbulpur, Ajmer, Jaipur,
Jhansi, Etawa, Allahabad, Kanpur, and Calcutta contributed a lot towards
the beginning of modern Maithili in all its aspects. The Maithila Mahasabha
encouraged the study of English, which was necessary for getting entry
into the government jobs. Schools and Colleges were started for imparting
western-education. The late Sir Ashutosh Mukherji, Vice Chancellor of
the Calcutta University, founded a Chair for Maithili in the University
of Calcutta with the help of Raja Krityanand Singh of Banaili. Justice
Sharda Charan Mitra and Babu Nagendra Nath Gupta immensely helped
the cause of Maithili by their writings and speeches. The Asiatic Society
of Bengal published the oldest classic of Mathili, the VR (edited by
Dr. S. K. Chatterji and Pt. Babuaji Mishra). The late Dr. Biman Bihari
Majumdar has made notable contributions towards the cause of research
in Maithili and his researches and editions are of a very high standard.
Maharajas of Darbhanga like Lakshmiswara Singh, Rame-shwara
Singh and Kameshwara made princely donations to the various
universities for the study and propogation of Maithili. The advent of
our century saw the emergence of a band of selfless scholarswho devoted
their lives for the cause of research in Maithili. The Maithili Vidwadajani
Samiti (1906), founded by the late Mr. Muralidhar Jha, started the
publication of a monthly Maithili Journal, entitled “Mithila-Moda” from
Banaras. The contribution of this journal to the development of modern
Maithili is unique and unparalleled. The Mithila-Moda popularised the
Devanagari character in place of Maithili script. The late Mm. was a great
scholar and he realised the importance of adopting Devanagri for the
propagation of Maithili. The publication of the old Maithili classics also
helped the new awakening. Though a renowned scholar of Sanskrit Mm.
Muralidhara Jha also served the cause of his mother tongue with equal
devotion. The Maharajadhiraj of Darbhanga started the publication of a
bilingual journal, entitled Mithila Mihir (started as a monthly but later
converted into weekly) in 1908. It was in the pages of this particular
journal that a large number of modern Maithili works came to be
published. Most of the writers of our generation started writing in this
journal. As early as 1905, Maithili Printing Press came to be established
at Madhubani with the help of Banaili Raj. In the same year Rambhadra
Jha (ex-Judicial Minister of Alwar State) and Vidyavacaspati
Madhusudhan Jha brought a well-edited monthly journal entitled the
“Maithila Hita Sadhana”. This journal also played a leading role in bringing
the new renaissance.
New researches were carried out and in the wake of the
establishment of the province of Bihar in 1912 came a new consciousness
among the people. The Svadeshi movement had already set the ball
rolling and a spirit of enquiry had begun to agitate the minds of the
people. On the patterns of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, a new Society,
known as the Bihar (and Orissa) Research Society came jnto being under
the noble guidance of the late Dr. Sachchidanand Sinha, Sir Edward Gait,
and K.P. Jayaswal. The Bihar Research Society, brought to light many
hidden treasures of the Maithili literature and it furthered the cause of
research into various aspects of the literature. The establishment of this
society marked the beginning of a new era in the field of research and
its catalogue of Mithila MSS, published so far, is a mine of information
for the future researchers. The Prabasi Maithilas brought out Maithila
Prabhakara (1929) and Maithili Bandhu (1934). Attempts were made to
cast Maithili types, introduce new style of spellings and frame rules for
the guidance of the writers. Mithila Research Society, Maithili Publishing
House, Maithili Club, Maithili Sahitya Sabha, Maithili Granthamala and other
Societies played a significant part in bringing about the new awakening
in the realm of Maithili language. The establishment of Maithili Printing
Press at various places gave an impetus to the rapid growth and spread
of Maithili. New literature came into existence. In recent years, the All
India Maithili Writers’ Conference, organised under the auspices of the
Vaidehi Samiti, has done yeoman’s service to the spread of Maithili and
its line has been followed by various other Maithili societis in different
parts of the country. An All India Conference of Maithili writers was
organised at Bombay in 1969 and another such attempt was made by the
Maithilas of Benaras in 1971.
Pandit Chanda Jha, Jiwan Jha, Mm. Ganganath Jha, Mm. Murlidhara
Jha, Raghunadan Das, Lal Das, Bhola Lal Das, Umesh Mishra and
Amarnath Jha and a host of others cultivated the Maithili language with
sincerity and devotion. All of them were noted scholars and their
singleminded devotion to the cause of Maithili bore fruit. The growing
influence of English retarded the growth of the vernacular for a pretty
long time. The retardation of Maithili was also due to the introduction
of English medium. Maithili continued to be read and studied with all
seriousness at home and its recognition by the different Universities for
various courses of studies enabled it to stand on its own leg. The new
lines were set. The first example of a refined modern Maithili prose can
be gleaned through the Maithili translation of Vidyapati’s
“Purushapariksha (a new edition of this book has been brought by
Professor Ramanath Jha) by Chanda Jha. The English rendering of a
passage of the same is as under:
“On the banks of the Ganga, stood a City called Kampila. There
lived a King named Hemangada. On his attaining heaven, the ministers
made the King’s son and heir apparent, Ratnagada, the King. He, on
obtaining the Kingdom, became proud of his ancestral riches and was
prone to do all kinds of injustice through the youth which has gone to
his head.”
The inauguration of the modern age in Indian languages is associated
with the beginning of prose literature of various kinds such as essays,
criticism, novels, short stories and the like. Chanda Jha started the
tradition of a refined prose. Lal Das wrote a number of works in modern
refined Maithila prose, though most of his works are yet unpublished.
The tradition from old to the new prose is discernible in the beginning
of the 20th Century. The Mithila Moda created a great tradition of serious
and thoughtful writing and it raised the level of Maithili journalism.
The Savants of the early decades af our century attempted at modern
and scientific models of enquiry. They shaped the language into a fit
instrument of argument and discourse. In their hands, Maithili prose
acquired much needed qualities of clarity and vigour, but retained the
utilitarian, derivative and didactic character. Translations formed the
basis of early prose writing.
In the field of prose and novel, Pandit Jiwach Mishra (author of
Rameshwar) showed a commendable concern for originality by inventing
his own material from social life with the primary object of showing the
pernicious effects of spending lavishly at the Shradha ceremony. In some
cases, blatant moralising spoils the plot. As a pioneer, he brought about
a new prose. Gradually, prose literature acquired a dignified status. New
literature began to appear on almost all subjects like philosophy and
ethics, history and geography, travel, mathematics, grammar, rhetoric,
prosody, novels, short stories and literature for children and women.
No remarkable progress in Scientific literature has been made.
Journalism, fiction, biography, odes, sonnets, blank verse, etc. are not
unknown. The new dimensions are clearly perceptible in the modern
literary productions. The harmonious development of the language has
brought home the fact of the essential unify of Indian literature.
(V)
The foundation of the Maithili Sahitya Parishad in 1931 at Laheriasarai
at the initiative of Shri Bhola Lal Das marked the culmination of efforts
made by the earlier leaders of thought. Shri Bhola Lai Das staked
everything for the proper running of the Maithili Sahitya Parishad and he
may be described as the modern Bhagirath for Maithili. Some very
valuable work was done under the auspices of this Parishad. Messrs.
Shashinath Choudhary, Kuseshwar Kumar, Narendra Nath Das and
others collected all the relevant information regarding the existence of
all liter ary works in Maithili under the able guidance of Sri Bhola Lal
Das whose contributions to the cause of Maithili are yet to be assesed. A
short account of all the avilable literature in Maithili (both in print and
in MSS) was published by the Parishad. The establishment of the Parishad
marks a turning point in the history of modern Maithili literature. An
account of the works of this Parishad and that of Bhubneshwara Singh
Bhuvana’s has been critically examined by Shri Chandranath Mishra
‘Amar’ in his recent maithili publication entitled ‘A Survey af Maithili
Literature’. Amara’s survey gives a detailed account of the recent
development in Maithili. Mm. Umesh Mishra’s speech about the origin
and development of Maithili at the All India Maithili Sahitya Parishad
at Ghoghardiha helped scholars to go deeper into the subjects. The
publication of the ‘Formation of Maithili Language’ (by Subhadra Jha) and
History of Maithili literature’ (J. K. Mishra) formed the basis of further
research into the subject. Modern Maithili literature is the result of this
new awakening caused by the factors discussed above. The volumes
published on the occasion of the All India Writers’ Conference in 1956
and 1963 and the Conferences held at Bombay in 1969 and at Benaras in
1971 give us an idea of the growth of modern Maithili literature in all its
branches. Late Shri Atul Chandra Kumar of Araidanga (West Bengal)
published a short account of Maithili and Mithila (in English language)
on the occasion of Khruschev’s visit to Calcutta.
It was in the year 1929 that the idea of organising “Vidyapati Jayanti”
on a grand scale was mooted in Jail by Narendra Nath Das. In no time,
the move received unanimous support from all quarters. The
inauguration of the Vidyapati Jayanti, in the wake of national movement,
marked the beginning of a new era in the history of modern Maithili
litrature and helped the growth of new awakening. Essays were written
for the occasion and the best ones came to be rewarded. The Maharaja of
Darbhanga patronised the scheme. The movement gained momentum
and many new writers got impetus. A ‘Vidyapati Goshthi was also formed
at Laheriasarai. The Maithili Sahitya Parishad was organised on scientific
lines and Official Journals came to be published. The contemporary
Journals and various organisations evinced keen interest in developing
Maithili. After the first Progressive Writers’ Conference in 1936, Maithili
took a new turn. The annual conference of the Bihar Provincial Hindi
Sahitya Sammelan, held at Begusarai in 1937, was indirectly helpful to
the growth of the movement for the recognition of Maithili as the
organisers of the then Conference did not show any sign of animosity
towards Maithili. Among the various contemporary Journals, “Bharati”
and “Vibhuti” played a very prominent part in the propagation and
stabilisation of Maithili speech. “Bharati” boldly asserted that the
Maharaja of Darbhanga was giving a step-motherly treatment to Maithili.
“Bharati” carried on the struggle for the recognition of Maithili at the
University stage. Kumar Ganganand Singh, Rai Bahadur Jayanand
Kumar, the Late Chaturanand Das, M. L. A, Bhola Lal Das, Dr. Sudhakar
Jha, and Suryanandan Thakur, M.L.A., were the pioneers of this
movement. The movement was carried forward by Mm. Umesh Mishra,
Dr. Amarnath Jha and others. It culminated in the All India Exhibition
of Maithili books and MSS in 1964 at New Delhi where the late Pandit
Jawahar Lal Nehru inaugurated the function and the Hon’ble Satya
Narain Sinha presided. The movement for recognition gathered
momentum and all sections of the people supported the cause. The
recognition of Maithili as an independent regional language on February
15, 1965, by the Sahitya Akademi was a great event in the history of
Maithili literature. The movement succeeded in achieving its end.
CHAPTER—XIII
The Golden Trio
( Chanda Jha—Raghunandan Das—Lal Das )
Maithili is fortunate in having a brilliant set of scholars, a devoted band,
who have dedicated their lives to make Maithili a rich and cultured
language. We have seen above that the new awakening was caused by
both external and internal factors and the Maithili literature assumed
new forms. The good old days were now over and new literary
dimensions were discovered and that also with success. Though it is
difficult to fix a date for the beginning of modern Maithili literature,
which is fast growing even to-day and taking long strides, but for the
sake of convenience we may take 1830 A.D. as the starting point of the
new trends in Maithili. The date fortunately coincides with the birth of
Pandit Chanda Jha, a collaborator of Grierson, and a genius himself.
Fortunately for us, the beginning of the modern period is dominated by
the Great Trio—Pandit Chanda Jha (1830-1907), Munshi Raghunandan
Das (1860-1945) and Lal Das (1856-1921)—whose contributions in the
different branches of Maithili are immense and in many respects unique.
The Great Trio marked the blossoming of the lotus of the Maithili
literature.
The brilliant trio, with harmonious intellectual and spiritual
affinities, have brought about a change of the values in literature in the
minds of the readers and critics and have dominated the scene of Maithili
literature in recent years. They have been studied and are being studied
with greater gusto now. They are the real inspirers of modern Maithili
writers. At a time when the country was groaning under the heels of the
British imperialism, the trio took pains to revive the story of the epics in
people’s language to enable the common man to imbibe the spirit of
Rama and Krishna and through subtle literary agencies, these literary
patriots inspired the people to action. The trio were great patriots and
humanitarians and they left no stone unturned to raise the prestige of
Maithili language and to lift it from the morass of sloth and despair.
Though themselves great masters of Sanskrit, Brajabhasha and Persian
respectively, these literary giants adopted Maithili (as their medium of
writing) literature as experimental means to that great end of patriotism
and humanitarianism. They were all prolific writers and they had a host
of followers who carry, in their works, marks of deep influence of their
masters.
(I) CHANDA JHA
Chanda Jha was born at village Pindaruch in the district of
Darbhanga. He was educated at Bargaon (Saharsa) and Narhan
(Darbhanga). He was associated with the court of Narhans but later
shifted to and finally settled at the court of Maharaja Lakshmishwar
Singh of Darbhanga. He is rightly regarded as the founder of the modern
Maithili literature in all its branches. He was a versatile scholar and a
great researcher of his time. He was a prominent helper of Sir George
Abraham Grierson and Narendra Nath Gupta. He collected a large
number of Materials on the history of Mithila and worte on almost all
the subjects. The Ramayana in Maithili is his magnum opus. It was
completed in 1886. He translated the Purushapariksha of Vidyapati (1889).
He wrote Gitasudha (2 parts), Gita Saptasati and Maheshwanisa-mgraha
(posthumously published by Dr. Ganganath Jha in 1921.) He collected
and compiled the poems of Vidyapati, Govindadasa and Lochana and
attempted to revive the Maithili Ragas and Raginis and also to popularise
the Kirtaniya drama. His collections of the poems of the old Maithiii poets
are very important and some of these collections are believed to have
been in possession of the late Professor Ramanath Jha of Darbhanga.
Chanda Jha’s note on the history of Mithila in his edition of the
Purushapariksha of Vidyapati formed the basis of further research on the
subject. Some of his writings are yet unknown and unpublished. He
devoted his whole life in resuscicating the past of Mithila and Maithili
and thereby laid the foundation of modern research into the subject. Just
to popularise the Kirtaniya drama, he himself wrote one such drama
entitled “Ahalyachar-itanataka”, It was partly published in 1912 in the
Mithila Mihira (of 1912). The subject is the famous legend of Indra’s illicit
connection with Ahalya, wife of Gautama, and her redemption by Rama.
He quotes songs from Jayadeva and Vidyapati in this drama. The
Ramayan is, of course, his most famous and well known Mahakavya.
The Ramayana, a monumental work, is by far the best and the most
popular work through which he has lived and will live in years to come.
In his creation of this epic, he depended, to a great extent, on Balmiki
whose influence is perceptible to any critical discerning eye. Its sweetness
of language and style soon attracted the notice of scholars. It became
extremely popular in no time. Though written mostly in accordance with
the Sanskrit metres, the songs are tuned to the Mithila School of Music
and the lines sound melodious when chanted. Maharaja Lakshmiswara
Singh was so much interested in its creation, that he fully discussed every
line of its composition at his court. It was only after such a full length
discussion that the composition was completed. Typical figures of speech,
appropriate idioms, melodies and lyrical tinge, rhythmical lines and
metres, living characterisation, love of details and poet’s conviction of
the ultimate victory of good over evil are some of the salient features of
this work. All characters have been nicely depicted, plots have been wellconceived,
natural descriptions are sometimes superb and the description
of Mithila is simply marvellous. He was a true artist and the first poet to
compose a Mahakavya in the real sense of the term. The devotional
character of the work can hardly be doubted.
His age was the replica of Victorian age in Mithila. Jyotisha-charya
Baldeva Mishra ( of Bangaon-Saharsa) has written an account of his life
and works. Dr. Laliteshwar Jha has recently published an exhaustive
account of the literary achievement of the age of Chanda Jha. Dr. Jha’s
contribution to the study of this age will remain a monumental work
until more elaborate and highly critical account comes forth. Professor
Hitnarayan Jha has published a comparative account of Chanda Jha and
Wordsworth. Chanda Jha has been described here as a poet of nature.
He can be favourably compared with Wordsworth and at times with
Keats. His influence on the contemporary Maithili literature is yet to be
assessed. He brought refinement in the realm of prose, laid the foundation
of a scientific enquiry into the subject, collected the old classics and
compiled them, composed new series of Maheshavancis and Nacharis and
set a new line of writing in different branches of Maithili literature. A
few thesis on the life and works of Chanda Jha in Maithili have been
submitted and some stray critical articles on the poet have recently come
out.
He fostered a literary culture among his friends by encouraging them
to write. His long life of about seventyseven years was a great boon to
the Maithili language. Through his sheer intelligence and perseverance,
he served the cause of Maithili better than any of his predecessors or
successors. He was receptive to modern ideas. He wrote on almost
everything either casually or in a planned manner. The flowing felicity
of versification and the depth of sincerity cannot fail to touch the hearts
of his readers. His inspired moods were the moments when his soul
experienced its unity with the divine it was searching for. In the rare
moments, he burst into magnificent poetry as will be evident from his
Maheshvanis. He was also critical of the British rule in India and has
castigated it in a very sarcastic manner.
(II) MUNSHI RAGHUNANDAN DAS
An illustrious descendant of the family of Shridharadasa (author of
Saduktikarnamrita), Bodhidasa and Amritakara, Munshi Raghunandan
was born at village Shakhawar (Darbhanga). Trained early in Sanskrit,
Brajabhasha, Maithili and Urdu, he showed signs of his genius since his
childhood. A man of devoted temperament, Munshiji, inspite of his
various activities, was always busy with literary work. He was the literary
friend, philosopher and guide of Babu Gopishwara Singh, a great patron
of art and letters. He had intimate relationship with Harshanath Jha,
Chanda Jha, Chetnatha Jha, Vishwanath Jha and other contemporary
writers. Chetnath Jha, Mm. Mukunda Jha Bakshi, Gananath Jha, Lal Das
and various others were his associates. His long life of eightyfive years
enabled him to produce a lot in Maithili and Brajabhasha. His famous
works are Mithila Nataka, Sudarshana Nataka, Dutang a da Vyayoga (Drama),
Vratakathas (verse), Birbalaka (Khandakavya) and Subhadraharana in ten
cantos (Mahakavya).
The tradition of the epic poems, set by Manabodha, was continued
with equal vigour and intensity by Chanda Jha, Raghunandan Das and
Lal Das. They formed a golden trio. The modern renaissance in Mithila
would not have been possible without them. Nowhere in their
description, the style and compositions have suffered in lucidity and
expressiveness. The trio achieved a good deal in stabilising the literary
forms in Maithili in modern times and thereby brought a new awakening
in the field of poetry and prose. Chanda Jha brought to the fore the stark
reality of his age when he said that the “people were busy over the
problem of their bread”. Munshi Raghunandana Das gathered courage
to say that “the foreigners had looted the riches of our country”. They
challenged the old order in a more subtle way and through the medium
of their mother tongue, they brought the realities of the age before their
people.
The Subhadraharana deals with the famous episodes of Arjuna
carrying away Subhadra. Its convas is large, style fluent and the
descriptions of seasons and natural objects ennobling. Munshiji is
essentially a narrative poet, a Kavya-maker par excellence. His secret
lay in the fact that his Kavya was also highly interesting fiction, presented
in magic casket of alluring poetry. In his Subhadraharana, he indeed rises
to Olympic heights perhaps because of the very nature of the subject
and gives his readers the vision of a noble soul. His poetic imaginations
and expressions rise to respectable levels. He regrets at the indolent habits
of the Maithilas and calls upon them to rise to the occasion. That is a
great message that he delivered through his works. He inspired many
to compose many new things in Maithili.
Raghunandana Das was a man of varied interest. He took keen
interest in the preparation of the Kirtaniya drama and also made attempts
to revive it. He, along with Harshanath Jha, Yadunandan Jha,
Kapileshwara Jha and others, used to train Kirtaniya actors who appeared
before the assembly of the learned. The orchestra was in the Nardiya
form in musical Kirtana. He was equally conversant with the Brajabhasha
forms and composed poetry in that language. He also wrote in Maithili
a number of Maheshavanis, Uchitis and Malara. From the literary point of
view, his Maheshavanis are of a high order. They deal with the description
of Shiva, his proposal to marry Gouri, his Bariati (bridegroom’s party),
Manains’ disappointment etc. His songs are simple and lucid and no
obscure imagination mars the clarity of his poems. He was a master prosewriter
as well. He writes with confidence as will be evident from the
following translated piece :
“His (Lakshmiswara’s) regime infused fresh energy into social,
cultural and literary life of the people. His charming personality, kind
treatment, love of scholarship, and unbounded patriotism and generosity
attracted scholars and literary persons from far and wide. There was all
round awakening in Mithila... The latent creative faculty of the people
was aroused, and contributions began to enrich Maithili literature in all
its different branches.”
He also busied himself in bringing to light the old and forgotten
poets and writers of Maithili. He also prepared Maithili Shikshavali for
children and also translated various Sanskrit Vratakathas into Maithili.
In lyrics too he occupies a prominent place. His Mithilanataka is didactic
and allegorical and depicts the evils of the Kali Age. We get here the
smartness of dialogue, raciness of style and consistency and vividness
of imagination. He is credited with having brought a stage sense in the
modern Maithili drama.
The Mithila Natak is a very important contribution and is greatly
influenced by the new awakening. In his introduction, he says that the
Natalca depicts the evil of the present day Mithila through allegorical
characters and contrasts it with her glorious past. Like the
Probodhahachandrodayanataka, Kali, Krodha, Lobha, Pishuna, Alasya,
Irshya etc. are the main characters here and Kali opens the drama.
Santosh, Sumati, Vidya and Aikya are also represented as characters of
the play. Dharma laments at the lot of his men. In this Nataka, Maithilas
are, in course of time, shown to rise from deep slumber and the play
opens with the message of an awakened Mithila. Sita also has her part to
play. The wit and intelligence of a Maithila Woodcutter is sharply brought
out. Realistic characterisation is the best contribution of Munshiji who
planned his dramas in a better manner and where wit, humour and
sarcasm found a suitable place. He also translated the Uttararamacharita
into Maithili.
(III) LAL DAS
He was born at Kharaua (Darbhanga). As compared to his two
notable contemporaries, he had a shorter life but even in such a short
time his output is second to none. He was associated with the court of
Maharaja Rameshwara Singh and he was so much devoted to him that
he called his Ramayana, Rameshwaracharita. He was a versatile genius
and wrote in Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian and Maithili. Very few
persons have written so much on different branches in different
languages in such a short period. One of his books in Persian-Urdu
language is on the mode of letter-writings and the calligraphy of the
book is at its best. He had a fine hand. He also wrote the entire
Durgasaptasati on a piece of Silken cloth. A short account of his life and
works has been published by me in the Mithlla Mihira but a
comprehensive study of this genius is yet to be made. He was also a
good prose writer. His prose works include Shtrisiksha (or Pativratachara),
Sangadurgaprakashika. His poetical works include Ganeshakhanda,
Shambhuvinoda, Virudavali, Chandicharita, Gangacharita, Mithilamahatmya
and Rameshwara Ramayana. He also composed Vratakathas and a drama
entitled Savitri Satyavana.
His Ramayana is a major contribution. It must be asserted here and
now that he does not try to follow the lead given by Chanda Jha as has
been repeatedly insisted by a set of scholars, but he has his own way of
saying things in a simple style. Maharaja Rameshwara Singh took a keen
personal interest in this work and it was out of his affection for the
Maharaja that he named his Ramayana as Rameshwaracharita. One is
reminded here of Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramcharita which has double
meaning. Lal Dasa’s Ramayana does not carry double meaning but the
fact remains that he wrote independently in his own way and it has
nothing to do with the manner of Chanda Jha. Here he has tried to bring
out the ideal character of Sita in a plain and simple language. Though a
scholar of Sanskrit, he has not tried to show his verbosity and unusual
mannerism because his intention is to write the story of Sitarama in a
language which can be followed and understood even by a rustic villager.
The simplicity of his Ramayana and its variety and range is indeed
amazing. The following illustration will bear out the truth: — “Lanka is
afire from end to end,
Fire has converted the country into ash,
And dispelled the darkness of the nocturnal beings
Fire has devoured Lanka, the jewel of three worlds
Sita has entered into fire with this intention
And the puissant flames have destroyed Lanka in moments—”
X X X
“Fully blossomed lotus has beautified the affluent tank,unique
are the exuberant Harasingaras.
Incensed night has infatuated hosts of bees,
Suppliants, too, come drawn to its splendour.
The wondrous beauty of the moon beautifies the sky,
And, behold, the countless stars by its side.
The bracing winter has come as the season of love-making,
soothing winter has brought the ambrosia of swati,
Which gives birth to shell-pearls.”
(Thereby), Let’s understand the distinction between the evil and
good.”He adopted the common speech as the literary vehicle and that
was, of course, a daring literary venture. His writings include excellent
treatises on women, poems, on natural objects, hymns and prayers. He
made use of his literary vehicle for publicising his ideas, vision and
reflections. The high dignity of expression is a remarkable feature of his
poetic qualities though all his poems are not truly inspiring. He did not
lag behind in the excellence either of language or of metre. He was one
of the brilliant adjuncts of the remarkable trio and created a name for
himself by introducing new themes from Sanskrit Upakhyanas and
Vratakathas. He was one of the most prolific writers of his age and besides
writing in other languages, as did his contemporaries. he wrote on a
variety of subjects in Maithili.
As a result of the consistent efforts of the trio, independent Maithili
Mahakavyas came to be composed in well marked out cantos or chapters.
In most of the Maithili Mahakavyas, benediction in the opening page is
common and subject matter is stated. Besides embracing an elaborate
and descriptive narrative, they are based on historical or mythological
accounts of heroes. There is greater elaboration of descriptions and large
number of episodes in the cantos of the Mahakavyas, and this particular
aspect distinguishes them from the Khandakavyas, which are generally
long narratives. The works of these three great writers of Mithila can
safely be compared with any other Indian languages. They, by their
efforts, paved the way for the advancement of Maithili literary forms for
the generations to come. All of them were equally great as prose writers.
CHAPTER—XIV
The Lotus Blossoms
( Study in Modern Maithili Poetry )
“Fully blossomed Lotus
has beautified the affluent tank”
(1)—Lal Das
In the field of poetry, Epics dominated the scene of modern Maithili
literature for a considerably long period. Certain old forms were revived
and given fresh vitality with new tinge of modernism. The revival of old
classical poetry in Maithili marked the beginning of new trends in modern
poetry. The old School of thought believed that successful epics could be
written only in Sanskrit and hence no attempt should be made in
vernacular. The modern authors and poets have successfully written
good epics in Maithili. The Maha Kavyas have been written with all
success in Maithili in the modern period. The importance of the
Ramayana of Chanda Jha and Lal Das and the Subhadraharana of
Raghunandan Das can hardly be gainsaid. Babua Khan and Bhup Narain
Sharma of Bangaon also deserve mention as earlier poets and writers of
modern times.
Both translations from the old epics and originals were written.
Achyutananda Datta translated Mahabharat and the Raghuvamsa in
Maithili which look like original compositions. Parmanandadatta
translated Harivamsa into Maithili poetry with great success. The Datta
brothers made notable contributions in all branches of Maithili and most
of their works are yet to see the light of the day. They gave a definite
shape to the style and form of modern poetical compositions in Maithili.
Both the poetry and prose styles of modern Maithili owe to them a good
deal. Yadunandandas translated Kumarasambham and Lakshminath Jha
-Naishadacharitam. The latter two have not been so successful from the
literary point of view as the Datta brothers. Gourishankar Jha successfully
translated Meghanadabadha without loosing the charm of the original.
The Datta brothers were finished artists and may be regarded as the
founders of the modern School of writing epics in Maithili. Girijanand
Jha has translated “Sisupalabadha”.
Original epics, written by Chanda Jha and Lal Das, were written
with greater success. Their influence on later writers is evident from the
later compositions. They were the inspirers of later writers of epics. The
most important epic after these writers and the Trio, is the Ekavaliparinaya
of Badrinath Jha. It is based on the sixth skandha of the Devi-Bhagavata. It
has fifteen cantos and the influence of Sanskrit is evident. All and sundry
cannot understand this Mahakavya, which is a great piece of Maithili
literature. It bristles with the examples of rhetorical excellence and his
superb power of invoking suggestions of the highest order. The poetic
excellence of this work will be evident from the following :
“In all the houses shrewd young ladies lighted auspicious evening
lamps : they invited and welcomed, as it were, King cupid with due
formalities and rituals”
X X X
“Like the mark of Chandan (sandal) on the forehead of the East, like
the solid form of pleasure flowing from the love-pranks of the Night,
like nectar to the thirsting eyes of the Chakori, the moon went up the
Sky,”
Ekavali is the name of the heroine and the story describes her union
with Ekavira. The story begins with the protracted penance of Turvasu to
beget a son and with the appearance of Narayana be fore him. A boon is
granted and Narayana takes birth as his son, named Ekavira. He is well
received by the people and he succeeds his father. He meets Yasomati, a
beautiful princess taken away by the demon, Kalaketu. Yasomati is a friend
of Ekavali and she narrates the beauty of Ekavali. Ekavira is moved. He
rescues Yasomati and lives happily with her.
Badrinath Jha reminds us of the style of Manabodha while describing
the childhood of Ekavira. His power of description is superb. Though a
good and original Mahakavya, half of its portion deals with unimportant
events while the important points are discussed hurriedly. The sense of
proportion does not seem to have busied our poet. Treatment of love
and other important episodes has been in a most careless manner.
In the field of Mahakavya, Kichakabadha of Prof. Tantranath Jha is a
major contribution. The epic, though only partly published, is a precious
treasure of the modern Maithili poetry. It deals with the story of the
killing of Kichaka by Bhima. Among all the successful Mahakavyas of
Maithili, Kichakabadha ranks high. As compared with the above, this
Mahakavya has succeeded in bringing the elemental feeling to a great
height. The sustained loftiness and elevated tone are well-defined here
in the Kichakabadha, a masterpiece indeed. The influence of Sanskrit is, of
course, there. The sense of proportion has been well maintained. Feelings,
pathos, emotions and pangs have been nicely depicted and imaginatively
concieveid. In the fourth canto, sublime thought, have been well brought
out. Prof. Tantranath Jha seems to have been influenced by Michael
Madhusudan Datta. Moods and emotions have been explored and the
feeling of Draupadi has been characteristically described. It is a pity that
such a masterpiece is yet incomplete. Prof. Jha has not written anything
after this masterpiece. Though a teacher of Economics, his literary insight
is marvellous. Pandit Sitaram Jha has written an Epic entiled
“Ambacharitay”, a masterpiece. He is the most prolific writer of this age.
He is a poineer in many things in Maithili. Though old in age, he has the
wonderful capacity of reconciling himself with the new tendencies of
his age. Krishnaballabh Das of Jagatapur (Saharsa) (died 1971) has also
translated in Maithili poetry ‘the Bhagavatagita’, which has also been
translated in Mathili by Vedanand Jha. Krishaballabh Dasa’s other
Maithili poetical works are unpublished. Dr. Kedarnath Labh has
published two important works viz; “Lakhimarani” and “Bharati”. His
poetic genius has not yet been critically assessed and it is not possible
for us to make an assessment here for want of space. Both are major
contributions in the realm of Maithili Poetry. It must be said to his credit
that he has created a niche in the modern Maithili literature by his above
two publications. Adyanath Jha “Nirankush” has written ‘Yajnavalka-
Vijaya’. Janardan Pratihasta is well known for his epic ‘Sita’. Mathuranand
Choudhary’s ‘Kanankanya’ deserves special mention. Dinanath Pathaka
‘Bandu’ has published ‘Chanakya’. Lakshaman Jha has published ‘Ganga’.
Another epic of importance published in recent years is Radhaviraha by
Kashikant Mishra ‘Madhup’.
In the fied of Khandakavyas, the tradition of translation continued
and original compositions were prepared and written. Adaptations from
the old Puranic tales are not few and far between. Lal Das made a
beginning of the Khandakavya by writing Shambhuvinod, Ganeshakhanda,
Satyanarayanavratakatha and Shashtivratakatha. These works belong to the
category of adaptation from the old Puranic tales. Gunavantalal Das, a
prolific writer, composed Gajagrahoddhara, Sudarashanaopakhyana,
Gangalahari, Sukanyopakhyana,Gauriparinaya prabandha (based on the
Barhmavaivartapurana). He also wrote some Vratakathas. Both
Gunavantalal Das and Raghunandan Das succeeded in translating
Sanskrit Vratakathas and they also made original literary contributions
in different branches. Following the tradition, Damodaralal Das wrote
Shakuntalopakhyana and Savitrisatyavanopakhyana. The Khandakavya have
been very popular with the modern Maithili poets because it is easier to
plan and finish it. Gangadhar Mishra composed Naradambha,
Satyavratopakhyana, Sukanyopakhyana and Sudamacharita. Aunp Mishra
wrote Naradavivaha.
The Khandakavya poets generally use chaste language. They have a
good grasp of the subject. The Puranic influence continued to hold the
field for a considerable period. Achyutanand Datta’s Ritusamhara shows
greater grasp of the essentials of the story in chaste language. Vallabh
Jha also composed Ritusamhara. To this category belongs Meghaduta of
Permanand Datta Parmarthi and Bhagiratha Jha. Parmeshwara Jha’s
Yakshasamagamakavya and Gauri Shankar Jha’s Bhartriharinirveda are
major contributions in the field of Khandakavya. Lakshmipati Singh wrote
Satyavratopakhyana and Rambhasukhasamvada by Pulkit Lal Das ‘Madhura’
is an interesting work of literary merit. ‘Madhura’ was a renowned
literatteur and critic and all his writings have not come to light.
Original writings in his field are equally important and of high
literary merit. Devakrisna Roy wrote ‘Bharagava-Vijaya’, Riddhinatha Jha
wrote ‘Sativibhuti’, Achytutanand Datta ’Pativrata-Mahima’, Govind Jha
’Banavasini’, Parmanand Datta ‘Rukminiparinaya’, Raghunandan Das
’Virabalaka’, Ganeshwara Jha ‘Devigita’ and Chedi Jha ‘Koilir-Duta’
(cuckoo-Messenger). The ‘Koili’-Duta’ become very popular in no time
and attained a status of its own. Chedi Jha ‘Dwijavara’ was a talented
poet and had written a number of other works, most of which are
unpublished. Some of the original Khandkavyas of Achyutanand Datta,
Parmanand Datta, Pulkit Lal Das ‘Madhura’, Anand Jha, Badrinath
Thakur, Kali Kumar Das, Upendra Jha ‘Vyas’, are yet unpublishd.
The remarkable characteristic of the modern Khaindakavyas in
Maithili is that the language here is chaste and narrative is told in a clear
manner. Most of these writers are equally conversant with the
contemporary languages like English, Sanskrit, Persian, Urdu, Bengali
and Hindi and, as such, they could not completely free themselves from
their influence. In spite of all these, the originality in Maithili has not
suffered rather it has become more and more marked. Mathuranand
Chaudhary ‘Mathur’, though not very mature in outlook and style, is
unique in the sense that he incorporated the ideals and problems of
modern times in new metres in his Mahakavya “Kanankanya” and in his
published Khandakavya ‘Krishaka’. He is a promising writer and has
also written ‘Musa Mahima’ and ‘Trisuli’. Many new poets and writers
have come up in our own times to which we shall revert in the last
chapter.
(III)
The tradition of the lyrical poetry in Maithili is as old as the age of
Umapati. Umapati, Vidyapati, his successors and the dramatists have,
in their own way, enriched the lyrical tradition of Maithili poetry. Both
originals and translations in this field of poetry are of a very high order.
Ratipati Bhagat’s translation of Gitagovinda looks like original. Chedi
Jha has also translated ‘Gitagovinda’ in sweet Maithili verse.
Bhubneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvana’ has translated ‘Virahini Brajangana’ and
‘Virangana’ has been translated by Govinda Jha.
We have already discussed the poetic qualities of Harshanatha Jha.
Grierson regards him as the founder of the modern Maithili lyrical poetry.
According to Grierson, his poems are in the same style as those of
Vidyapati and are in modern Maithili. The following specimen,
describing the beauty of a lady, is therefore quoted :—
“To day I saw a fair one; and lo, when It beheld her dark
garments so like dark clouds, a sudden flash of lightning played
around her. The moon though shining amid the fire of Shiva’s eye
became ashamed, when gazing on her face. For a great man cannot
bear to be disgraced.
When the Khanjana saw the play of her eyes, which put to shame the
leaf of the spotless lotus, it became ashamed of itself, and took up its
abode in the forest.
She knoweth that the young lovers would continually steal the gold
above her heart and so she hath tight bound her twin bosom beneath a
bodice. Harakhanath declareth with all his heart that the lady is
matchless.
When I saw her beauteous eyes, I knew I had done so as the result
of penances performed in former births.”
Chanda Jha and his great contemporaries made an invaluable
contribution towards the growth of modern Maithili lyrics. Chanda Jha
and Munshi Raghunandan Das composed lyrics and songs in praise of
various Gods and Goddesses. The Gitasaptasati, Sangitasudha,
Maheshavanis and Chandra Padavali of Chanda Jha contain a large number
of his songs. He was a devoted scholar and it is said that while singing
these songs, he used to be lost in deep thought. His devotional poems
directly display his moods and feelings. He used to sing daily a new or
old prayer to the Lord. The Maheshvanis of Chanda Jha and
Raghunandana Das are remarkable for their simplicity and sincerity.
Parmanand Datta tried a new technique in the Moheshavanis which
he composed. Here instead of the Manain (or devotee) Mahesha himself
is represented to speak. Jivana Jha Vindhyanath Jha, and Jayamangala
have also written sweet lyrics. Gananatha Jha has written songs to be
sung on various religious and social occasions. Some of his songs on the
Navaratra are very popular. They are philosophically addressed to the
primal energy. Sitaram Jha, Kavisekhara Badrinatha Jha, Kalikumar Das,
Riddhinath Jha, Mukunda Jha, Chedi Jha and various others have written
sweet lyrical songs for various occassions. Some of the modern lyrics
are serious and sincere and have all the qualities of a good poetry.
Riddhinath Jha in his Lakshmivati-Gitanjali has written devotional lyrics.
Manamohana Das has written some important Barahamasa songs while
Kali Kumar Das has written mostly occasional songs. Mukunda Jha
has composed fine Vishnupadas. The farewell songs (Samadauni) are
the precious heritage of modern Maithili poetry and such songs
continue to be composed in fresh veins. They are generally moving and
melodious.
Some of the lyricists are remarkable for their simplicity and devotion.
Anand Jha in his Maheshashastaka has broken a new ground of the lyrical
poetry. The Maithilibhaktaprakasha contain the collection of lyrical songs
of Ekadeshwara Singh, Durgadatta Singh and Dinabandhu. The recently
published ‘Padyasamgraha’ (by Prof. Ramanath Jha) contains a good
collection of songs and lyrics of the various poets of Mithila from ancient
to modern times. The Gita Panchasika of Tulapati Singh, Gananatha-
Vindyanatha-Padavali (edited by Sir Ganganath Jha), Maheshavani
Samgraha, Maithila Bhakta-Prakasha and Baliteshwarararjana contain a very
good and representative collections of the modern Maithili lyrics and
songs. Lyrics include all well known types of Maithili songs, viz. Tirahuti,
Chaumasa, Malara etc. The Maithili Gitanjali of Kali Kumar Das, Bhajnavali
of Mukunda Jha and Chandra Padavali represent major songs of modern
Maithili lyrics. In recent years Prof. Surendra Jha Suman, Arsi Prasad
Singh, Kedarnath Labh, Yatri, Kishun and Mayanand and many others
have joined the rank of lyricists in Mithila—Maithili lyric has suffered
on account of the introduction of blank verse in modern poetry. Prof.
Vishvanath Jha has published a very critical estimate of the lyrical
tradition of Mithila in Maithili but the study deserves to be pursued to
enable us to have a full picture of the history of the Maithili lyrical poetry.
( IV )
In the field of Muktakakavya, the modern Maithili poetry is not barren.
The versatile genius and a great scholar, Pandit Sitaram Jha of Chaugama
has made a name in this branch of Maithili poetry. His Muktakas have
been collected in several volumes, viz. Siksha-sudha, Lokalakshana
Upadesha-Kshamala. The Lokalakshana contain some of his most important
muktakas: “the epigrammatic summaries of various kinds of distinctions
that are made among men”.
Muktakas of all types are represented in his collections and he may
be regarded as the best poet of this school in modern times. Pandit Sitaram
Jha is a man of varied interest and has written on a number of topics. As
the foremost writer of Muktaka-Kavya, his works on Rhetoric and Prosody
are equally important and deserve careful consideration. He has written
Alankaradarpana and Chandolankara-manjusha. He is a type in himself and
in this respect he is matchless. Though an epic writer of some repute, he
has gained prominence as the forerunner of the new muktakas in Maithili.
By profession, an astrologer, Panditji is a writer of good prose also.
Other writers in the field of Muktakakavya are Achutyanand Datta
(Bhaminivilasha); Jivanath Jha (Shringaratilaka); Chedi Jha (Aryasaptasati);
Vallabh Jha (as translator of Bhartrihari and Chanakya); Dhanushadharilal
Das (as translator of Bihari Satsai), Yadunath Jha ‘Yadubara’
(Anyoktishataka), Dhanusha-dharilal Das (Maithili Saptasati), Jivanath Jha
(Kalpana), and Vedanath Jha (Ratnabatua). As in other fields of poetry,
here also translations and originals went side by side and in both the
directions the poets have acquired eminence. In the beginning of the
century, the muktaka poets also indulged in the parctice of Samasya-purti,
a practice already in vogue among the Hindi, Urdu and Persian poets.
In recent years, Anyoktis and Apahnutis have found favour with the
modern poets. Anyokti, Laukikokti, Apahnuti, Vakrokti, Vyajokti, Chakukti
and Kakukti have been used by Pandit Sitaram Jha. Among other writers
on Rhetoric are Vedanand Jha (Alamkritibodha), Kashinath Thakcur
(Rasakanana) and Buddhidhari Singh Ramakara or Jayadhari Singh (Kavya
Prakasha). The noticeable tendency in modern times is that the old types
of poetry are fast losing ground and a new school of poetry is coming
up.
(V)
The beginning of the twentieth century marked a sharp break with
the past in so far as the old values are concerned. The introduction of the
English education, coupled with the contact with western culture, had
its impact on the modern Maithili poetry. Times were fast changing at
the beginning of the century as a result of the intensification of the
national movement and their impact on the mordern Maithili poetry
was inevitable. The nineteenth century renaissance in Bengal influenced
the cultural pattern of the whole of eastern India and its impact is
perceptible in the new awakening of Mithila. Various cultural
organisations were established and literary movement took a new turn.
While the old traditions in certain cases were revived, new experiment
also began in the realm of poetry. Hence forward we come across new
forms and tendencies.
Poetry now came to serve a purpose—patriotic and otherwise, the
old devotional and erotic themes notwithstanding. A new national
consciousness had to be aroused and the people had to be educated
through various means. Poetry was pressed into service as it was pleasing
to ears and could attract many. Maithili had a long tradition of good
poetry from time immemorial and the new poets had therefore no
difficulty. The important poets began to feel the urge of a new poetry.
Yadunath Jha ‘Yaduvara’ felt the need of a new type and that is evident
from his introduction to his Maithili Gitanjali. He and his contemporaries
felt the need of arousing the people of Mithila and it was with this end
in view that Shyamanand Jha brought out his ‘Maithili Sandesha’. All the
early poets of the century were inspired by this ideal. Chanda Jha and
Raghunandan Das contributed a good deal towards the development of
this particular type of thinking. Partiotism proved to be a fertile source
of inspiration to the rising poets of the century. It was the love of country,
the literature and culture that inspired them to write and partriotic note
runs through their partriotic poems. Pandit Sitaram Jha, Surendar Jha
‘Suman’, Kanchinath Jha ‘Kiran’, Kashikant Mishra ‘Madhupa’,
Baidyanath Mishra ‘Yatri’, Brajakishore Verma ‘Manipadma’, Pandit
Raghavacharya Shastri and Chandranatha Mishra ‘Amara’—-have
written good partriotic poens. The patriotic poems are among the best
things called forth by the growing nationalism.
All sorts of partiotic feelings were aroused through patriotic poems.
Early poets of the century were filled with extraordinary enthusiasm
and they sang of the glory of Mithila on the one hand and of the future
on the other. Chanda Jha, Raghunandan Das, Bhanunath Jha, Pulkitlal
Das ‘Madhura’, Chedi Jha, Bholalal Das, Kusheshwara Kumar,
Bhubneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvana’, Janardan Jha ‘Janasidana’, Shyamanand
Jha belonged to this school. Patriotic poems may not even have high
poetic qualities but they served a purpose and helped the growth of
modern Maithili literature.
As a result of the contact with the new forms of English, Hindi and
Bengali poetry, new dimension were introduced in the field of Maithili
language and new forms and records replaced the old ones. The modern
Maithili lyrics freed itself from the bondage of music and in this respect
it has been largely influenced by English lyrics. It is now not necessary
to attune every lyric to a raga or ragini. Lyrics are not to be sung but to be
enjoyed. They could be read and recited as a Kavya of the classics. In his
introduction, Bhubaneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvana’, in “Asadha” (a collection
of his own poems) has given vent to the new ideas and thoughts regarding
poetry. In his Kavyakusumanjali, Kali Kumar Das tried his hands at the
new technique of the lyrical poetry and his collections marks a step
forward in that direction. He is followed by Jainarayan Mallick,
Kanchinath Jha ‘Kiran’, Bhubneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvana’, Kashikant
Mishra ‘Madhupa’, Surendra Jha ‘Suman’, Ishanath Jha, Tantranatha Jha,
Shyamanand Jha, Baidyanath Mishra ‘Yatri’, Laksmipati Singh,
Brajakishore Verma ‘Manipadma’, Arsi Prasad singh, Raghavacharya
Shastri, Upendra Thakur ‘Mohana’ and Chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’
and Dr. Upendra Thakur, who in his early years composed a few poems
and has now given up writing poetry.
The ‘Asadha’ of ‘Bhuvana’ is the harbinger of a new type of poetry—
the lyrical element of which is marvellous. He touched both the old and
the new themes. Some of his lyrics are noted for expressing directly his
personal emotions. His “Smritikana” is the best among all his lyrical
poems and thereby he has set the ball rolling. ‘Bhuvana’ is otherwise
associated with a number of literary and cultural movements but his
name will go down primarily as a poet of the very high order. Vallabha
Jha, another great lyricist, is very much influenced by Sanskrit. His
‘Moonlight’ is one of the very good lyrics of modern times.
Surendra Jha ‘Sumana’, the erstwhile editor of the Mithila Mihira
(old series) and now a professor of Maithili at the Chandradhari Mithila
College, Darbhanga, is basically a scholar of Sanskrit. He has been the
pillar of Maithili language and his position as the editor of Mithila Mihir
has been compared to that of Acharya Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi and
Acharya Shiva Pujan Sahaya of the Hindi literature. During his
stewardship of Mithila Mihir, he prepared a band of devoted Maithili
scholars and trained them scientifically. Most of them have made names
in their respective branches. He has a facile pen and is a master artist.
His selfeffacing nature deserves emulation by others of his like. Many of
the modern Maithili creations are directly or indirectly the results of his
hand and in many cases his annonymous help is now only an open secret.
This prolific writer, both in the realm of prose and poetry, has a superb
command over the language and this qualification brought him a reward
from the then President of India, the late Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
He occupies a very prominent place in the modern Maithili literature.
His choice of words, description of seasons and alliterations are unique
in modern Maithili literature. His “Ode to Tree” can favourably be
compared with anyone of the best lyrics of any literature. The services
and sacrifices of “Tree” to mankind are associated with those of an ascetic.
The poem has since been collected in his famous collections “Pratipada”.
His song in praise of the Ganga is superb. He has made himself
memorable by writing on a number of topics and subjects. He is a
dedicated soul for the cause of Maithili lauguage and literature. His
publications include Pratipada, Saon-Bhado, Archana and many others. His
calibre as an editor can be seen in the Mithilanka of Mithila Mihira
published in 1935. His excellent poetic qualities can be seen in the
following lines :
“The Jungles on all sides are thick with the smell of Bakula
(flower); the pollen of Ketaki (flower) has filled the wind and made
it dense;
In every home the she-peacock is dancing;
Everbody’s eyes feast upon the dark clouds (meaning also
beloved Krishna), but it is in my home alone where the flame of
love remains unquenched.
Thus is the young lady of Alaka agonised on account of
unrequited love.”
Sumana, with his steadfast adherance to classical poise and dignity,
has produced literature of permanent interest.
It is very difficult to give an exhaustive account of a poet of the
eminence of ‘Suman’. He deserves a special study keeping in view the
varieties of his publications. Even as a translator into Maithili, he is superb
and has translated both prose and poetry from Bengali into Maithili. He
has translated from Bengali: (i) Saratchandra’s ‘Baradidi’ (Barki Dai) and
(ii) Rabindranath’s ‘Geetanjali.’ He has translated from Sanskrit—(i)
Purushapariksha of Vidyapati, (ii) Vedic hymns (Richaloka), (iii)
Sankarcharya’s ‘Ananda Lahari’, (iv} Durgasaptasati known as
Chandicharya); has edited Manabodha’s Krishnajanma and Ramdas
Upadhyaya’s Anandavijayanatika. Besides these, he has in recent years
published Kathayuhika (poem), Bharatabandana (poem) and many more
are in the offing. His latest literary creation is ‘Payasvini’ (a collection of
poems) indicating a new line in the realm of Maithili poetry but not
without the glamour of the poet who, in his own way, has tackled
numerous images with the perfection of a finished artist. This has won
for him the Sahitya Akademi prize for 1971. His Lalana-Lahari is a vivid
description of the peculiar characteristics of girls of different provinces
of India and problems connected with them regarding love affairs.
Ishanath Jha (died 1965) is another name to conjure with in the
history of Maithili lyrical poetry of modern times. He is better known as
“Sarasakavi”, a poet of Rasa. There is a fine blending of both the old and
new techniques in his poems and there lies his claim to originality. In
his description of nature, he is second to none and at time, he excels
many. He was a renowned musician and a noted scholar of Sanskrit. He
was also serving as a Professor of Maithili at the Chandradhari Mithila
College, Darbhanga. His traditional background helped him in creating
sweet and beautiful lyrics. His poems are based on the ideals of beauty
and God. The influence of Sanskrit is perceptible in him. His collection
“Mala” betrays affinities with English poetry and is an example of the
best lyrics that he wrote. He also shone in other branches specially in
music.
Kashikant Mishra ‘Madhup’ is a teacher by profession. He is one of
the leading poets. For his good poems in ‘’Triveni” (a collection), he was
honoured in 1954 by the Goverhment of India. He has made his mark in
all branches of poetry, he has chosen to write. He began his career as an
erotic poet but he soon turned to nature and patriotism. His power of
discernment is minute and he may be described as the founder of
progressivism in the modern Maithili lyrics. A man of wide imagination
and a lover of nature, Madhupa is by far the best singer of his songs.
Though he has written on a variety of subjects, his important and popular
poems are “Tara” (Star), “Osakana” (Dew drops), “Ghashal Athanni”
(Wornout Eight Anna Piece). Through these and other important poems,
Madhupa ennobles his subjects and brings out a string of original
comparisons.
Madhupa is a poet of the people and his themes are generally taken
out of the events of everyday life. The pathetic end of a poor labouier
has been well brought out his “Ghashal Athanni” which throws an
interesting sidelight on the treatment meted out by a Zemindar to a daily
wage earner. It is really a poem that moves the audience or the reader
and it has earned a name for him. He is known as Kavichoodamani. He
has written more than twenty books, most of which are yet unpublished.
His poems depict love, light and philosophical heights of Maithili
tradition. He can compose street songs and lyrics with equal fervour. He
is a singer of human tragedy and pathos. Few specimens of his poems
are given below :
“(Know not)
“Which creater created me a Gur Laden horse ?
On my back is the blood-wet gunny bag
Some devil with a kind feeling has spread some ashes on it—
...”
X X X
‘The bee of my brain has collected honey from the
lotuses of imagination… .I remain counting my sins
X X X
“Though in the cage of Kings’ court, the cuckoo (meaning
Vidyapati) was free and realising the fallen state of the society
harped on the lute of revolution.”
A master of Sanskrit language, Madhupa has marvellous capacity
of coining words and images. His lofty ideals and maginations have
already attracted the notice of discerning critics as will be evident from
Brajakishore Verma’s “Madhupaka Gunjana”. His love for the
downtrodden and have-nots is well known and in that respect he is a
poet of the masses. He calls himself a ‘broken chord” and says—”I weep
silently by my own sorrow”. He has exploited the lowliest and has
succeeded in carving out marvellous images. Instead of using stock ideas
and comparisons, he draws largely upon his own experiences and
surroundings and brings out a literature of revolution. Though not a
Marxist, he has successfully tackled the issues with greater insight into
the problems of common man. He takes humanity to be a frail horse
carrying the solid molass of civilization whipped by commercialism. His
“jhankara” represents his flight of imagination and the depth of feeling.
His melodious songs are full of pathos. His important works include
Apurva Rasgulla, Tatka Jilebi, Shatadala, Triveni and Jhankara etc. He has
recently published his epic ‘Radhaviraha’—in seventeen cantos. He has
recently published his epic ‘Radhaviraha’—in seventeen cantos.
Radhaviraha is a major contribution in the realm of Maithili poetry with
certain important traits hitherto unknown. It has won the Sahitya
Akademi award for 1970. It is based on the Krishnaite theme and it further
proves how even in modern times, the poets of Mithila have drawn
inspiration from that theme. Pangs of separation have been delicately
handled by Madhupa and his own style of poetry has added luster to
the well known theme.
Arsi Prasad Singh, the noted Hindi poet, is a renowned poet of
Maithili as well. He has translated Meghaduta in Maithili which looks
like an original creation. In Maithili, his “Matika Dipa” is one of the finest
collections. He writes occasionally in Maithili. His latest work is
‘Pujakaphool’. His poetic genius is excellent. Upendra Thakur ‘Mohana’
is one of the prominent lyricists of the modern Maithili poetry. His famous
collection is “Phuladali”. Influenced equally by Freud and Marx, Mohan
is a finished poet and sings the sweetest songs. He has written both on
social and erotic themes. Though a poet of the people, his horizon is
wide and scope greater.
The life of a daily wage earner has been nicely brought out in one of
his poems. His songs generally move the audience. The bad qualities of
the life of a idler in Mithila did not escape his notice and he has written
very sarcastically on such aspects.
Baidyanath Mishra ‘Yatri’, formerly known as “Vaideha” and better
known as “Nagarjuna” in Hindi literature, is one of the most prolific
writers of Maithili in modern times. He is a widely travelled man and is
a master of about two dozen languages both Indian and foreign. He had
his early training under Pandit Sitaram Jha, an eminent poet himself.
After finishing his education in Sanskrit at Tarauni (Darbhanga) and
Mahisi (Saharsa) he moved from place to place and came into contact
with the late Mahapandita Rahul Sankritayana, K. P. Jayaswal and
Bhadanta Ananda Kausalayan. It was through the efforts of the above
named gentlemen that he could visit Tibet and Ceylon and acquired
proficiency in Pali, Prakrit and Tibetan. He was intiated as a Buddhist
but later changed his faith and was attracted towards Marxism. He
maintains himself by his pen and he has no other means of livelihood.
He is not only a poet but also a successful novelist, short storywriter and
a forceful prose writer. Dr. J. K. Mishra has rightly observed: “The poet
took no recourse to Sanskritised words and raised a colloquial style to
the poetic level. Ingenious thought, epigrammatic and terse style,
colloquial diction, unparalleled speed and tempo and pointed observation
characterise those poems... . He is bitter and tender, pathetic and satirical.
The images, the thought, the feeling and the associations, are all born of
true experience. Their charm lies not a whit less in their hidden music
than in their realistic subject matter.”
Though he has written comparatively less in Maithili, his
contributions are unique and mark a new milestone in the history of
modern Mathili literature. His patriotic poems are many. It was his “Ode
to Maithila” that first brought him into prominence. His earliest poem in
Maithili is Budha Bara (Old Bridegroom) which is a sarcastic reflection
on the prevailing marriage customs of Mithila. His “Vilapa”
(Lamentation) is a dramatic monologue represented by the lamentation
of a child widow. His command over the language is matchless. In one
of his poems, he outlines the task of a progressive poet. He uses the
typical Maithili words spoken by the lowest strata of the society. Some
of his expressions defy translations. His diction is elevated and simple.
His artistic hands can suit his words to his ideas. He generally writes in
free verse and takes his clue for his lyrics from the lowliest and the havenots.
He has successfully depicted the devastating ravages of Kosi; has
nicely painted the character of apoor and miserable life of a girl gatherer
of dry twigs (Goith-Bichchani) and has ably brought out the feelings and
passions of a devoted husband. Social tensions in modern life has been
brought to the fore in a very artistic manner in “Dwanda” (struggle). His
collection “Chitra” contains most of the above poems. His ‘Patrahina Nagna
Gaachcha,—has won for him the Sahitya Akadmi Prize for 1968. It forms
a landmark in the history of Maithili poetry and is a remarkable
contribution. ‘Yatri’ belongs to the both—old and new school and his
poetry may be categorised as belonging to different Schools. He heralded
a new age in the realm of modern Maithili poetry and broke new grounds
by introducing many progressive elements in it. His poems reflected the
contemporary anxieties and horror, and both the poralysed and
revolutionary mood of modern man in a society where things fall apart
and the centre cannot hold.
Yatri is a poet of outstanding qualities. His poetry draws sustenance
from the diverse experiences of his life. As a Marxist he has the insight
to understand social and political phenomena in their true perspectives.
His keen sense of proportion, coupled with the clarity of expression, has
made his poems stark with realism and yet superb in poetic value. He
reminds us of Nazi Hikmet and Qazi Nazrul Islam. His deep love for
men, his warm sympathy for their sorrows and anxieties, his sense of
purpose in dealing with the social problems are some of his best qualities.
He is the protagonist of a struggle for better life. His poems are extremely
difficult to translate because of the use of typical Maithili phrases and
imagery whose fineness is lost in other language. In his description of
his task as a poet, he displays grim determination. He does not miss any
detail, the naked poverty and hunger in his description of the girlgatherer
of dry twigs. The description is, of course, unique. All his poems prove
the maturity of thoughts, of his confidence in the transition of society
from capitalism to socialism and of the greater possibilities of good poetry
when new verse forms are adopted. The masterly blending of politics
and life is the keynote of his poetic mission. Though bitter and satirical,
he is a realist and fully believes in the theory of socialist realism. He has
full faith in the ultimate emancipation of man from all types of
exploitation. He says:—
True is the gradual progress of human society, The gradual growth
of intellect, True is the history of struggling millions,
True is the earth, and the Sky
Supreme by truth, is the “Man” himself.
X X X
“Blind life,
Fathoms and feels, the path, the ford, the hearth, the deserted
fields,
With the stick of yearning,
Tuk, Tuk, Tuk, Tuk ....
Blind life,
Overwhelmed and standing,
Wear the cross-roads, the confluence of ages,
Hears rapt with the ears of discretion,
This.... and.... that....
X X X
Professor Tantranath Jha with superb poetic qualities, wrote on the
model of Michael Madhusudhan Datta. His well known Mahakavya has
already earned for him a good name but in the field of lyrics too he has
earned a good name. He introduces a new style and is, therefore,
important. His “Asvina’* and “Nutanavatsar” {New Year) are his two best
lyrics. He is also a writer of sonnets He has written a literary humorous
ballad entitled “Musali Jha”. He also writes good sonnets.
Buddhidhari Singh ‘Ramakara’ is a good lyric poet. His collections
include ‘Avesha’ and ‘Amara Bapu’. Ramakar is equally great as a prose
writer and as a critic. In elegance and harmony, Govinda Jha in his ‘Bimba’
surpasses many. Upendra Jha ‘Vyas’ (by profession an Enginneer) is a
successful poet and his “Vi dyapatika Avasshana” has earned a good name
for him ‘Vyasa’ is more well known as a novelist. His poems are also
good, though not so remarkable as his novels. Among other important
poets are Chandrabhanu Singh, Kulananda Jha ‘Kulesh’, Sudhansu
Sekhara Chaudhary (Editor, Mithila Mihir) and Rupanarayan Jha ‘Rakesh’
(son of Pandit Sitaram Jha). It should be noted that most of the poems of
the poets are yet unpublished and, as such, any critical evaluation at this
stage is not possible. Their stray publications donot enable us to present
a comprehensive view of these poets.
Dr. Brajkishore Varma ‘Manipadma’ is one of the most prolific
writers of modern Maithili literature and is a man of varied interests. He
is great as an essayist, critic, prose-writer, story-writer, dramatist, poet,
and an expert in folk-literature. He has been the source of many a
researcher in the field of Maithili literature in the past and is yet the
guiding sprit of many. ‘Manipadma’ is the author of about three dozen
books (mostly unpublished) and hundreds of literary articles and poems.
Though not a Marxist, his poems are progressive and touch the human
heart. He is a great humanist. He values life very much. Manipadma is a
poet of the people, a poet “down to earth”—as Tagore had once visualised
of a new poet. He has never let his imagination fly to fantasy and taken
recourse to subterfuge in order to hide harsh reality. His poem ‘Kaushar’
(Lotus) brings to light the picture of starving masses suffering and
struggling for survival. Here we have storm, gathering within, for a great
change. The reality has not been ignored and the poetic excellence reaches
the highest pitch. “Kaushara” is one of the finest specimens of the modern
Maithili poetry. He says;—
“The lotuses are blooming, spreading to the golden horizon,
They are swing in the golden morn by the honeyed breeze.
X X X
“From far off the lute of Mahasweta is vibrating and royal
swans are forming their flocks....
X X X
“But, Oh, who are those Mahakrishans
(Great blacks) ?—they are exploited,
Trampled, half-starved and in tattered clothes,
Burnt like half burnt wood… these torn men are bending low…
X X X
The earth is enjoying pomp and splendour,
These men are weeping....
X X X
The poem has two images—in the first part beauty, romance and
sweetness are expressed while in the second the naked truthabout the
exploited people are ably brought out. The world is producing plenty
but the vast masses of humanity is living upon snails and Karmi (a kind
of leafy vegetable). In one of his poems, he describes the life of a labourer
who goes to the east in search of his livelihood. The labourer says—”My
only possession is my sickle, made by Ramu Lohara (Blacksmith) and I
totally bank upon its shining edge. The earth is below my feet and the
sky overhead.” About the industrial civilisation, the poet says :
“Man has become Machine…
It has countless mouths but no ears;
it has countless brains but no heart…”
He composed the following lines after the Chinese invasion :
“The automatic guns are showering bullets ....
O, poet, break your pen and make cartridges, And play upon
the fire lute. How can so many elephants (meaning Chinese) will
bear the attacks of even handful of conscious and awakened lions
(like us—the Indians).”
In theme, he is closest to life. His from is direct and crisp, particularly
predominant is his technique of short sentences and words. His poems
are virtually shorn of prosody. The man he writes about however is not
the one cursing his lot but the man who participates in the struggle for a
better life. He uses the typical Maithili phrases and imageries. He stands
for improvement in all the recognised values of poetry. He is an optimist
and looks forward to the bright morrow of happiness and prosperity
which is to dawn soon. He always writes with confidence. To the people
who are striking to build life anew, Manipadma is a great source of
inspiration as he wants them to reflect life in its myriad manifestations.
Chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’ is one of the most progressive poets
of Mithila and occupies a very high place among the modern poets, critics,
storywriters and prose writers. He deals with alltypes of social oddities
and some of his poems reveal the true chracteristics of the modern Maithil
society. He has composed poems for the people, maintaining and often
improving all recogniged values of poetry. His “Gudagudi”, “Triphala”
and “Yugachakra” contain a representative collection of his poems. His
latest publication is ‘Ritupriya’. Like ‘Yatri’ and ‘Manipadma’, he is also
a poet of the people. He generally keeps his audience spellbound
whenever he recites his poems and his only rival in this respect is
‘Madhupa’ whose melodious voice lulls the audience. ‘Amara’ wants to
know more closely his people and he has reached a higher stage in his
creation to-day. His reportage has opened a new vista in Maithili
journalism. His poems are a lyrical commentary of life where the
revolutionary ardour is predominant. He is not a Marxist but his poems
reflect the feelings of lower middle class. He always invokes the great
spirit of sacrifice whenever he takes up a cause. He is always eloquent in
his expressions. What is most striking in his poems is the sharp whiplash
of satire interspersed with the words of determination of resistance and
of courage.
Radhakrishna Jha ‘Baheda’ is a poet and a story writer. He has
written some good lyrics and satirical poems. Describing the visit of a
minister to the flood affected area in the Kosi region, he, in his poem
‘’Jhalahara” (water-excursion) says that there are tea, betel-leaf, zarda,
on the Khadi cushion on the boat, while our hearths, homes and crops
are being washed away. What benefit are we getting while they are
having the best of their life in the floating boat on the white current of
the Kosi. He is more famous for his poem “Tarera” (The Float). A frail
boy sits by the dirty pond with an angling rod. His whole self is
concentrated on the float, when a small fish nimbles at the hook. The
mental attitude of the frail boy has been nicely brought out. He
occasionally writes good songs and that he does in the background of
village life, fields and orchards.
The Bahera group (Darbhanga) consists of Dr. Brajkishore Varma
“Manipadma”, Kashikant Mishra ‘Madhupa’, Radha-krishna Jha
‘Baheda’, Shri Krishnandan Das, Shri Amalendu, Shri Jayanarain Jha
‘Vineet’, Shri. Gopal Chandra Mishra, Shri Ram Charitra Pandey ‘Anu’,
Shri Chandrabhushan Jha, Shrimati Subhadra Suhasini, Chandrabhan
Singh and a host of others. The Bahera group of writers have made
valuable contribution to the different branches of Maithili lileratute and
their contribution have earned due place in the history of Maithili
literature. Shri Ramcharitra Pandey ‘Anu’ is a powerful writer and a
poet of new ideas. His collection have been published under the title
‘’Nakshatra”. Like others of the Bahera group, he is also a poet of the
people and writes mostly on the village life and culture. His poems are
well known for their flow and glow. He is both a satirist and a humourist
Though a poet of love and beauty, Chandrabhushan Jha marches with
determination. Some of his lyrical songs have become very popular in
recent times. Pandit Jainarain Jha ‘Vineet is a great patriot and took active
part in the national movement. He could have contributed a lot, had he
been spared from politics. His poetic urge impelled him to write patriotic
poems, through which he calls upon the people to arise and awake. In
one of his poems on ‘’Vidyapati” he has exhorted the coming poets to
sing the songs of bravery and patriotism. Through his poems, he has
successfully advocated the cause of patriotism, bravery and Ramarajya.
He is a poet of traditional values. After his retirement from active politics,
Vineetji is again at his pen and writes poetry regularly on different
aspects. He is conscious of the modern demands of readers and writes
accordingly. He is still writing in spite of his age. His lyrical songs have
been well-received. Shri Krishnanandan Das is also a patriotic poet and
has written some good songs. Some of his poems are brimming with life
and lofty imaginations. He says :—
“Do not take off your hand Comrade,
Some Voice is calling me astray,
In the jungle of humanity there are beasts of prey —
Do hot leave me alone,
Man cannot exist alone,
He needs a society to live, to
Prosper and to enjoy the tiny life he has.”
Gopal Chandra Mishra is a poet of nature. He paints nature with
deep feelings. His deep feelings, his soft and tender words and his
glowing imagination mark him out as one of the finest lyricists of the
Bahera group of writers. He finds a river flowing along a dry jungle
with trees without leaves and the sand flying with gust of wind and he
then asks : “How far is cuckoo ?” This is how he hankers for the
symphony of life. The sweet lyricist has not forgotten the drudgery of a
labourer. He has rightly observed that the sweet of the labourer
is watering the field. The pangs of separation and the sweet emotions
of life and literature have received a paternal treatment at his hands
and at the same time he has not shut his eyes from the stark realities of
life.
Among the new poets of the new school are Pandit Ram Krishna
Kishun, Mayananda Mishra, Madhukar Gangadhar, RajaKamal
Chaudhary, Ramakant Jha, Dr. Kedar Nath Labh, Anant Bihari Indu,
Ramdeva Jha, Somadeva, Ramanand Renu, Jivakant, Dhirendra, Hit
Narayan Jha, “Hansraj” and others. Ram Krishna Jha ‘Kishun’ generally
wrote serious essays, short stories and typical notes on current problems,
articles and critical notes. He fluency is second to none in modern times.
His knowledge of Sanskrit was great help to him in his choice of words
and imageries. He has written several stray poems and songs on different
aspect of life ranging from bravery to nature. His “Atmanepada” is a
remarkable publication marking new lines in the modern Maithili poetry.
Kishunji was a link between the old and the new and he acted as a bridge.
He was one of the strongest supporters of the new trends in modern
Maithili poetry and with a view to supporting such a movement he
convened a conference of new writers at Supoul in 1966 and thereby
laid the foundation of a new school of poetry. He died in June 1970. He
was the very life blood of Maithili. movement in the district of Saharsa
and had collected arround him a band of dedicated writer, poets, critics
and workers of Maithili. Though Rajkamal also belonged to Saharsa,
credit for introducing new trends in Maithili goes to ‘Kishunji’ who
represented a synthesis of everything that is good in all the recent trends.
New writing or ‘Navalekhana’, as it came to be known in Maithili in the
late sixties had its recognition at a conference held at Supoul at Kishunji’s
initiative and the publications made thereafter are self-eloquent. In his
death modern Maithili writer has lost one of its strongest pillars of
strength. His self confidence was a point to be imitated. Just before his
death, Kishunji had published a short account of Maithili literature in
the district of Saharsa and that gives a good account of the progress
made in Maithili, in that district. In this school of Modern poetry in
Maithili, Ramanand Renu, along with Jivakant and Kirtinarayan, has
made a name and Renu’s latest collection of poem “Antatah” is an
indication of his thinking mood. Maithili poetry has made great strides
in recent years and its future is pregnant with greater possibilities.
Mayanand Mishra, a successful novelist, critic, journalist, is also a poet
of repute. His choice of words in his poems is apt and his songs have
musical values. In modern terminology, he may be described as a
symbolical poet. He has been equally influenced by Freud and Marx
and his writings bear the impress of both these thinkers—be it prose or
poetry. He is a rising scholar and a promising poet. Metaphysics and
symbolism have influenced him and he is struggling between two
contradictory school of thoughts. His imageries, power of description
and sweetness of language make him a successful lyricist of the modern
period. He also writes in Hindi. His “Disantara” is a good attempt in the
field of new Maithili poetry. Rajakamal choudhary heralded neo-realism
and experimentalism in Maithili poetry and Svaragandha pioneered a
new awakening. He was past master of the art of blending ideas with
style. Sensualify because a vehicle for new orientation in outlook and
thinking and he highlighted that—”Lips bite lips and yet desire does
not end.” He also wrote uninhibitedly about sex. To Rajakamal and
Mayanand sex is the basis of all creative activity and is the most subline
influene in human life. They have humanised and deified sex. (Rajakamal
gave a call for new kind of poetry way back in 1958.)
Drs. Shailendra Mohan Jha and Ramanath Jha (Professor of
English—Ranchi), Ram Kishore Jha ‘Bibhakar’, Shivashankar Mishra’
‘Nrisinghan’, Ramanath Mishra ‘Mihir’, Shri Krishna Mishra, Vedanand
Jha, Surendra Das ‘Saroja’ and Kirti Narain Mishra and Mahendra Narain
Mishra, Jivakanta, Ramanand Renu, Birendra Mallick, Mantreshwar Jha
and ‘Indu’ have composed good lyrical songs and poems. Bibhakara’s
“Viveka Bibhakara” is a creditable work. He has published a number of
small booklets. Munindra Chaudhary Rajakamal, now well known as
Rajakamal, was a name to conjure with in almost all the branches of
Maithili literature. He has equal command over English, Bengali,
Sanskrit, Hindi and Maithili. He is otherwise known as a good translator
from Bengali to Hindi and from other languages into Maithili. He was
an allrounder and a master of beautiful and appropriate words for
appropriate places. His collections of poem are ‘Vichitra’ and
‘Svaragandha’. He has the making of a lyrical poet. As a lover of nature
and tenderness, he is sweet and musical. We will have occasions to
discuss him later on. Pandit Raghva-charya Shastri is a revolutionary
poet. He has his own unique style and his “Krantigita” has been very
popular and has earned wide reputation.
Echoing the revoltionary spirit of his time, Birendra Mallick writes,
“The country belongs to those who have revolution in their blood and
voice.”
Mantreshwar Jha is a bit agnostic. In his poem ‘Ganga,’ he asks:
“Is there any God? Show me where He Is ?Before I believe in
Him; Is there no God? Tell me, how did you realise it?
Somadeva, Dhirendra, Durganath Jha ‘Srish’, Ramdeva Jha,
Ramanugrah Jha, Sukant Soma, Mahavir Prasad Mandal ‘Bir’, Subhas
Yadava, and Jagdish Prasad Yadav represent the new school in the
modern Maithili lyrical poetry They generally write in free verse.
Gourishankar Prasad “Somadeva” is a renownod poet of Maithili and
his latest publication is “ Kaladhvani” which contains the collection of his
poems written on different occasions. Professor Hitnarayan Jha, mainly
a critic, writes traditional poems. Dr. Kedarnath Labh, Professor of Hindi
at Rajendra College, Chapra, has earned a place among the lyrical poets
of Maithili. He has also translated into Maithili (from Hindi) Poddar
Ramavatar Arun’s ‘Asokaputra’ or ‘Kunala’. It is a good piece of poetical
work and is an example of his poetical talent. He is well known for his
sonnets in Maithili as well. He is one of the few sonnet writers in Maithili.
Gopalji Jha ‘Gopesh’ is a rising poet and his poems have noted a place in
the modern Maithili poetry. Shri Shyam Bihari Das and Jagdip Narain
Dipak have contributed some lyrical songs. Rabindra-nath Thakur also
writes symbolical songs. Jagdish Prasad Kanna writes both serious and
non serious poems. Vidyanand Das (known as Kislaya Sahityalankar),
Tarakant Prakash, Virendra, Gangadhar Das, Ramdeva Jha, Sudhakant
Das, Ramanand Renu, Mahaprakasha, Shanti Suman, Subhas Kumar,
Kamakhya Devi (known as Niraja Renu), Shephalika Varma, Gouri
Mishra and Prabha Jha, have written remarkably good poems in recent
years. We owe a good deal to Professor Ramanath Jha who has brought
to light the names of such poets in his collection. “Chalu-Cbalu Bahina”
by Rabindra Nath Thakur, a risingpoet is appealing. Professor Ram Deva
Jha has recently published his research work on “ Nandipati Gitimala”.
KirtiNarayan Mishra’s ‘Simanta’ and ‘Hum stavan Nahi Likhava’ form a
landmark in the history of modern Maithili poetry and a description of
the great city of Calcutta is simply marvellous. The poets of the first
volume of the Nava kallol group (1971) rejected convetional images,
stanzas, rhymes, metres in fovour of blank and free verse. Kirti Narayan
says, “Rhyme, metre and meaning,
All are being torn and eaten up by the out of time,
Beauty, culture, religion, philosophy, idealism,
All are burnt to ashes in the acid of revolution.”
Maithili is rich not only in the epics, Khandkavyas and the lyrics, but
also in other forms of poetry. Among the of descriptive poet, Laldasa
may be taken as a pioneer and he is followed by Rajendra Jha, Kashi
Kant Mishra ‘Madhupa’ whose ‘Kobara-Gita’ (describing the Kobara
ceremony on the occasion of marriage) is simply marvellous. In the field
of humorous and witty poems, Maithili has attained a very respectable
status. Damodaralal Das, Hari Mohan Jha and Chandranath Mishra
‘Amara’ have made notable contributions in this branch of poetry. Prof.
Harimohan Jha is well know for his humour and both in prose and poetry
he is highly witty and humorous. Some of his humorous poems include
‘Tea Party’ and ‘Dhala Jha ka Bidai’ (farewell to Dhala Jha) and ‘Pahunai’.
Damodaralal Dasa’s “Prempatravali” (partly published) is very
interesting. In this genre, chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’ has proved
extremely successful. His witty mind and careful selection of details have
made him one of the most leading humrouso poets of modern Maithily
literature. Viewed in that light, his ‘Yugachakra’ is a very good creation.
He rightly hits at the social odditties created by the opportunity after
independence. His sarcasm is strong and touchy. He has touched every
aspect of human life from chivalry to romance and even such current
problems as unfair means in the examination hall, drain pipes, miniskrits
and what not and he has nailed his point very successfully. In recent
years Gopalji Jha ‘Gopesa’ has also written some humorous poems. All
types of verses are used by the modern Maithily poets. Gopalji Jha has
also written some good parodies and has succeeded in bringing to
literature a new class of literature in the form of his varied writings varied
writings.
Shri Vedanand Jha has enriched Maithili poetry by his translations
of some of the Sanskrit works and also by his original contributions. He
possesses a marvellous style and his control ever words is praiseworthy.
He has translated ‘Satyanarainavratakatha’, ‘Gita’ and many others. His
“Shradhanjli” and Shivastuti are also important. Shri Anant Bihari Indu
has translated King Mahendra’s (of Nepal) Nepali poems “Usaikolagi”
into sweet Maithili lyrics. His published collection is “Teen
UsaikolagiSaptaka” which contain some of latest his lyrical songs. Indu is
a sophisticated writer of poems and draws his imageries from the life of
Mithila. His songs are a treat to the ears. A collection of poetry
“Vidyapatika Desh me” (In the land of Vidyapati) (in Hindi and Maithili),
edited by Professor Jagannath Prasad Mishra, ‘Suman’ and ‘Amara’
contains the poems of fifty seven poets. Most of them have already been
mentioned here in this chapter. Dr. Upendra Thakur, Kulanand ‘Nandan’,
Surendra Mohan, Balgovinda Lal, Lokapati Singh ‘Nirankush’, K.S.
Karmeshil, Chandrabhanu Singh, Kameshwar Singh ‘Masta’ and
Shrimati Pratima also deserve mention for their poetic qualities. Prof.
Shankarsoma has recently published a good account of modern Maithili
poetry in his lengthy article entitled ‘Adhunika Mathili Kavita ka Bhumika’
in ‘Vaidehi’(April-May 1971). From 1940 onwards Maithili poetry has
taken a new turn, while traditionalists continued to hold the field, the
progressives and modernists continued to come to the fore as a result of
the impact of English education. The feeling of being a Maithila with all
its past heritage, also inspired the intelletuals to adopt new techniques.
If the older generations continued the tradition of writing poetry in
mother tongue the younger generation have carried forward the tradition
to higher pitch in all respects. Ishnatha Jha, Suman, Raghavacharya,
Kiran, Manipadma, Kedarnath Labh, Gopesh, Somadeva, Ramanand
Renu, Jivakant, Moun, Dhirendra, Yatri, have written good and lasting
poems of patriotic values while making lasting contributions to other
branches of poetry. Philosophical and religious poems have been written
by Bhavapritanand Oja Dipaka, Amara, Mayanand, Gopesh, Hansraj,
Vineet, Anu, Rajkamal Choudhary, Lokapati Singh, Yatri, Manipadma,
Somadeva, Balgovind Lal, Madhupa Tantranath Jha, Dhirendra,
Kedarnath Labh, Hari-Mohan Jha, have specialised in progressive,
humanistic and functional poetry in recent years. The impact of modern
trends in western poetry is visible in the modern Maithili poets most of
whom are educated in western style and are well conversant with the
new trends in European and American literature. Those who represent
completely new trend and may be taken as precursors of the break with
the past are Raj Kamal, Yatri, Kishunji, Kirtinarayan Mishra, Somadeva,
Jivakant, Mihir, Birendra Mallick, Nachiketa, Hansraj, Prabasi,
Sahityalankar and others. Writers, and poets of this geneation represent
different trends, no doubt, but they have really made a definite departure
from the old school. The conference, held at Supoul (already referred to)
gave a lead in this matter. Nachiketa’s collection of poems is an example
of philosophical and metaphysical nature of his poems and represent a
new school altogether in the scheme of modern Maithili poetry. Renu’s
“Okre Nam’ (1972) adds a new genre in the history of modern Maithili
poetry and it may be treated as a class of elegy.
Modern Maithili poetry has attained an important status as a result
of its direct contact with different literatures. New forms have been
introduced and new subjects have attracted the attention of our poets. In
the field of poetry, Maithili has progressed beyond expectations and all
new techniques of the modern times have been employed with ease,
comfort and success. There are traditionalists, classicists, even romantics,
progresives and realists The whole of universe comes under the purview
of modern Maithili poetry. In the modern period, we find two different
trends among the Maithili poets: (i) those who follow the old descriptive
methods; and (ii) those who introduce imaginative elements to compel
literary delight. Pandit Sitaram Jha has wonderful descriptive talents.
He is the most popular poet by sheer dint of his easy style and choice of
subject matter. He has been writing for the last forty five years. In poetic
talent, Badrinath Jha is better than his contemporaries. The second trend
is cultivated with ease and success by the modern poets.
Modern poets are widely read and they have copiously drawn from
various cultures of the world. We find in their poetry wise sayings of the
east and the west. In their search for meaning, they dive deep into the
world literature. This has made the language of their poetry a little
overladen with foreign words phrases, and allusions, sometimes
rendering it stiff and obscure for the average reader. The prewar poets
wrote chiefly about the countrysides and old themes. Rural life in all its
beauty and happiness, sorrow and poverty, figured in their poetry.
Towns are the nerve centres of modern civilisation and modern poets
are town conscious. Modern poetic diction is marked by a great economy
of words. Modern Maithili poetry is now not only under the influence of
Freud, Marx and Weber but also that of Sartre, Camus, Che Guevara,
and recent trends of revolutionary ideas agistating the minds of youth
all over the world. Persons returning from abroad feel the gap and they
help in creating new trends in their mother tongue. The modern Maithili
poets, mostly youth, are wide and awake and are trying to catch up.
Some of the important poets represent the latest world literary trend,
but it appears that Maithili poets are not yet free from the lingering
heritage of the past. They stand confused on a number of issues and
even today they mostly concentrate on their social problems relating to
marriage, social inquality, problem facing the older generations and the
problem of unemployment. Though there are a few good poet who are
otherwise well informed and can favorably compare with any good poet
of the country. Majority of modern Maithili poets are yet to come out of
their sectarian grooves. The reading Maithili public is not aware of the
many happeinings in the world and naturally, therefore, even the
renowned poets have to come down in a number of cases. Jivkant has
broken a new ground in the field of modern Maithili poetry in his “Nachu
He prithvi”. (1971) which is a collection of his typical progressive poems
written in the late sixties. Both as a writer of prose and poetry, he has his
own style different from others and he has something new to say either
by way of criticising or interpreting in his own manner. By nature an
anarchist, he also stands confused on a number of current issues but his
contributions are important and he writes Maithili with ease both in
prose and poetry. He uses typical, though some times obsolete, Mathili
words and in this respect he is second only to Yatri.
CHAPTER—XV
The New Dimensions
(A Survey of Maithili Prose)
“She prepared a plank of sandalwood, smooth, of good
dimensions and broad enough. Also was the string of silk firmly
tied to the branch of the Kadamba tree. As the clouds on the
horizon, my mind leaped up with joy and I put on my silk cloth in
the form of “love” of my dear one, like a cloud illumined by
lightening.”
—Jiwan Jha.
The oldest specimen of prose in Maithili literature so far obtainable is
the V R of Jyotirishwar. The prose style of the V R is quite different from
the modern Maithili prose. Vidyapati’s Kirtilata contains a mixture of
the old Maithili prose and poetry. That prose was in form of Maithili
Avahatta. The medieval prose was purely documentary. A few specimens
of the literary prose of the medieval period are available to us from the
Maithili dramas. The refined prose is a gift of the modern period. In
Maithili, we get a glimpse of the refine literary prose from the latter half
of the 19th century.
The modern period is characterised by the growth of a definite prose
style, which is different from the early and medieval prose. The
mannerism and the poetic forms of early prose had long gone out of use
while the decadent prose of the medieval period was incapable of being
the medium of peoples’ wishes and aspirations of modern times. The
earlier prose style could not succeed as it was devoid of all touch with
reality and had failed to carry conviction with greater mass of the people.
With the change of time a workable prose became a necessity. It had to
be readable. Had it not been brought into closer contact with life and
had its horizon been not extended, the prose would indeed have
remained in a state of arrested and stunted growth. The modern Maithili
prose has been enriched by Journalism, Novels, Short Stories, Critical
essays, stray writings and dramas. In the beginning of the modern period,
prose writers like Chanda Jha and Tulapati Singh were artificial,
uninspiring and lifeless. Mohamahopadhyaya Murlidhar Jha,
Parmeshwar Jha, Raghunandan Das, Lal Das, Mm. Ganganath Jha, Mm.
Umesh Mishra, Shri Bhola Lal Das, Sri Narendra Nath Das, Professor
Amarnath Jha, Shri Shashinath Choudhary, Shri Kuseshwar Kumar,
Narendra Nath Das and Professor Harimohan Jha and Ramanath Jha
have brought suppleness to the modern Maithili prose. Jyotsacharya
Pandit Baldeva Mishra, through his reminiscenes, has brought to light
many unknown facts about them in recent years. Mm. Muralidhar Jha
brought the Maithili prose to the standard level and did not mind using
English words in writing Maithili prose. We shall now take up the
development of modern Maithili prose through various channels :
(I) Journalism as the Vehicle of Modern Maithili Prose
In Maithili there has been no dearth of good periodicals and reputed
journals, but all of them have been shortlived. These periodicals and
journals have been the sources of a major portion of modern Maithili
prose. The Maithili-Hit-Sadhana (1905) was the first Maithili monthly
periodical and it lasted for about three years. It had ambitious projects.
It paved the way for the future Journalism. Philosophical and Literary
journals quickly followed on its heels. The aim of this periodical was to
publish the works of permanent value in Maithili in different disciplines.
Among the noted contributers were Chanda Jha, Madhusudan Jha, Sone
Lal Jha, Rambhadra Jha, Jiwan Jha, Yadunath Jha ‘Yaduvara’ and others,
It maintained its standard throughout its life both in style and content.
The Mithila Moda (1906) and the Mithila Mihir (1907-8) were the
milestones of Maithili journalism. Mm. Murlidhar Jha was the editor of
Mithila-Moda. Due to his earnest efforts, a new consciousness came
amongst the Maithili prose writers. Moda had the longest life among the
Maithili monthlies. It was the pioneer of a literary movement and its
impact on the development of modern Maithili, in all its branches, is
immense. From 1906 to 1920, Mm. Murlidhar Jha edited this learned
journal and from 1920 to 1927, Anup Mishra and Sitaram Jha and from
1936 to 1951, Shri Upendra Nath Jha edited the new series of the ‘Moda’.
The foundation of the real Maithili journalism was practically laid by
the ‘Moda’ group of writers during its long and varied life. It published
standard articles on all topics. It was well known for its witty and sarcastic
comments. Messrs. Kusheshwar Kumar, Raghunandan Das, Bhola Lal
Das, Ram Chandra Mishra, Trilochan Jha, Sitaram Jha, Jyotishacharya
Baldeva Mishra, Mm. Umesh Mishra and various others were the
important writers of this journal. It was through this journal that the
modern Maithili pross acquired the qualities of clarity and vigour. It
raised the great tradition of thoughtful writing and raised the level of
jouranalism to great height.
The ‘Moda’ was followed by ‘Mithila Mihir’. It was bilingual in the
beginning and became trilingual for a short period in 1930-31. The journal
had the longest life of about fifty years. A new series, after a gap of
about five years, has been started in 1960 in pure Maithili and is being
edited by Shri Sudhansu Sekhar Choudhary. The old series was ably
and successfully edited by Pandit Surendra Jha ‘Suman’ since 1934. It
was he who raised the standard of journalism in modern Maithili. He
made ‘Mithila Mihir’ the real ‘Mihir’ of Mithila during his tenure of
editorship. No article in the journal passed for publication without his
finishing touch. His untiring efforts made journalism effective in Maithili.
‘Mithila Mihir’ was the real breeding ground of modern Maithili writers.
Some of the hidden treasures of the Maithili literature were brought to
light by ‘Mithila Mihir’, which published both serious and non-serious
materials. The special number of the Journal, known as ‘Mithilanka’
(Volume XXIX of 1935), is a valuable store house of knowledge regarding
Mithila and Maithili. Before 1934, Messrs. Vishnukant Jha,
Mm. Parmeshwar Jha, Jagdish Prasad Jha, Yoganand Kumar, Janardan
Jha ‘Janseedan’ and Kapileshwar Jha Shastri acted as editors. Among
the notable contributors were Munshi Raghunandan Das, Bhola Lal Das,
Narendra Nath Das, Pulkit Lal Das ‘Madhura’, Udit Narain Lal Das,
Kulanand Nandan, Achyutanand Datta, Parmanand Datta, Kali Kumar
Das, Mm. Ganganath Jha, Mm. Umesh Mishra, Prof. Amar Nath Jha,
Bhubneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvan’, Kusheshwar Kumar, Harimohan Jha,
Lakshmipati Singh, Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’, Shashinath Chaudhary,
Arsi Prasad Singh, Kumar Ganganand Singh, Raj Pandit Baldeva Mishra,
Prof. Ramanath Jha, Jyotishacharya Baldeva Mishra, Dr. Braj Kishore
Varma, Chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’, Shashinath Jha, Radhakrishna
Chaudhary and others. The journal was started by the Maharajadhiraj
of Darbhanga with a view to bring about consciousness among the people
and the paper rightly served the cause. The new series, started in
1960, under the able editorship of Shri Sudhansu Sekhar Chaudhary is
getting more and more popular. It has inspired many writers to come
up. In spite of its bilingual character, the Mithila Mihir has served the
cause of modern Maithili to a great extent and inspired others to follow
suit.
The Prabasi Maithilas did not lag behind. The “Maithili-Prabha’ was
published from Ajmer between 1920 and 1926, Maithila-Prabhakara” from
Aligarh between 1929 and 1930. These were bilingual papers and were
edited by Ramachandra Mishra. These journals preached social reform
and through their journals they tried to establish contact with the people
of Mithila. Kumar Ganganand Singh, Pulkit Lal Das, ’Madhura’, Pandit
Chedi Jha, Bhubneshwar Singh ‘Bhuvana’, Raghunandan Das, Pramath
Nath Mishra and others from the Maithili region were the important
contributors of the above journals.
Udit Narayan Lal Das and Nand Kishore Lal Das started the
publication of “Shri Maithili” (1925-27) with the sole intention of creating
a prose style in Maithili and also with intention of preserving the purity
of the language. Essays and criticisms on different aspects of the language
were published and problems relating thereto were discussed. The paper,
though short lived, served the cause of Maithili more successfully than
many of its contemporaries. It laid the foundation of a polished and
refined language.
The unfinished task of “Shri Maithili” was immediately taken up by
the newly started monthly periodical “Mithila” (1929-1931) under the
able editorship of Shri Kusheshwar Kumar and Shri Bhola Lal Das.
‘Mithila’ left no stone unturned to keep alive ‘the tradition of “Shri
Maithili”. As a literary journal “Mithila”, in a very short span of life,
established its reputation all over Mithila and it soon became the forum
for all serious scholars of Maithili. High standard of scholarship was
maintained throughout its career. It also dealt with the social problem of
the time with the result that bitter controversies originated. It would not
be an exaggeration to say that through the efforts of Shri Maithili” and
‘Mithila’ new types of literary prose came to be created and their aims at
standardisation met with success. The editorials, written by Shri Bhola
Das, paved the way for further refinement in Maithili prose. Messrs
Harimohan Jha, Narendra Nath Das, Kali Kumar Das and Shrimati
Shambhavi Devi were some of the important writers of these two journals.
Both Pulkit Lal Das ‘Madhura’ and Chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’ (in his
latest survey) have attested to the contributions of these two journals to
the development of modern Maithili prose.
In the wake of these short lived journals, there appeared from
Krishnagarh (Sultanganj-District Bhagalpur) a Maithili fortnightly
entitled ‘Mithila Mitra’ (1931-1932), later converted into Monthly, edited
by Pandit Gaurinath Jha. Late Dhanushadhari Lal Das, Shashinath
Chaudhary and Mahesh Jha were also associated with this journal in
the editorial capacity. It brought to light the importance of celebrating
Jankinavami” as the national day of Mithila. The Maithila-Bandhu” started
its career in 1935 (1935-43; new series started in 1947) and published the
lives of important Maithilas. Its special number, “ Vibhuti-anka” is of
permanent value. This journal was brought out by the Pravasi Maithilas.
They also published “Maithila-Yuvaka” (1938-41) from Ajmer, edited by
Chuni Lal Jha,and”Jiban Prabha” (1940-1950) from Agra, edited by Pandit
Brajamohan Jha.
The ‘Bharti’ (1937) and the ‘Vibhuti’ (1937-38), published from
Darbhanga, marked the zenith of Maithili journalism in so far as the
style and content are concerned. The ‘Bharti’ was the official journal of
the Maithili Sahitya Parishad, Darbhanga and was edited by Shri Bhola
Lal Das. It contained articles on all topics in chaste and finished Maithili
and it also attempted to restore some of the old classics of Maithili.
Commonsense, sobriety, breadth of outlook and magnanimity were the
notable features of this important journal. It discarded all sectarian
outlook and displayed a catholic spirit. Shri Bhola Lal Das, one of the
pioneers of the modern Maithili prose, was the life-blood of this journal
and he made it one of the most remarkable mediums of expression for
all the conscientious writers of Mithila. The establishment of the Maithili
Sahitya Parishad was a great event in modern times since its official
journals produced immensequantities of materials both in the field of
prose and poetry.
The “ Vibhuti”, on the other hand, was edited by Shri Bhub-neshwar
Singh ‘Bhuvana’. It went too far in criticising the old institutions and
attempted at giving a new style of spelling etc The controversy between
‘Bharti’ and ‘Vibhuti’ dillusioned many of their readers. Though
promising a revolutionary change, the ’Vibhuti’ gave an impression of
malicious propaganda. At this, moment, ‘Mithila-Moda’, ‘Bharti’, ‘Vibhuti’,
‘Mithila Jyoti’ and ‘Mithila Mihira’ were published and all of them were
responsible for the growth of modern Maithili prose.
From the literary point of view the publication of the ‘Maithili-Sahitya
Patra’ (1937-1939) under the able editorship of Ramanath Jha forms a
landmark in the history of modern Maithili literature. This journal could
very well compare with any literary journal of any language. Only literary
works of permanent value were published in this journal. Scientific and
traditional style of spelling Maithili words were adhered to. Some of the
important old classics, some important modern epics, dramas and poems
were published in this journal. The ‘Sahitya Patra’ laid the foundation of
a literary style and its contribution in that regard is unique. It marked
the high watermark of literary Maithili journalism. The ’Sahilya Patra’
group produced literature of permanent value and the new poetry
ushered the intellectuals into a new fairy land of beauty, music and
freedom. New patterns of rhyming and new metres were now assimilated
into the language. The “Sahitya-Patra” group created new atmosphere in
the discovery of new horizons and in the new way of saying things.
They brought out many well-known classics of the past, produced some
new ones and laid the foundation of a refined prose style.
After ‘Bharti and ‘Vibhuti’, “Swadesha” was started in 1948 from
Darbhanga and a few others of purely temporary nature from Patna.
“Swadesha’ monthly was short-lived and so was the case with ‘’Swadesha”
daily (started in 1955). Profs. Shrikrishna Mishra, Dharmayapriyalal,
Surendra Jha ‘Sumana’, Dr. Suryakant Thakur, Pt. Kanchinath Jha ‘Kiran’
and Shri Chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’ were associated with ‘Swadesha’.
Papers, Journals, Weeklies and Monthlies like ‘Mithila Darsaana’, ‘Mithila’,
‘Mithila Sevaka’, ‘Chaupari’, ‘Pallava’, ‘Dhiyaputa’, ‘Mithiladoota’, ‘Ijota’,
‘kana’, ‘Batuka’, ‘Janaka’ etc. have also been started and some of themare
yet going. Shri Lakshmipati Singh, Dr. Lakshman Jha, Tulapati Singh,
Prof. Prabodh Narayan Singh, Dr. Shailendra Mohan Jha, Prof. Krishna
Kant Mishra, Prof. Dhirendra, Prof. Durganath Ja ‘Shrish’, Dr. Braja
Kishore Varma, Shri Babu Saheb Choudhary, Chandranath Mishra
‘Amara’, Mayanand Mishra, Shri Vijayakant Mishra and Shri Sudhakant
Mishra and others have made their mark in modern Maithili journalism.
“Vaidehi” (started as fortnightly in 1949 and consequently converted
in monthly) has been the most stable periodical in Maithili since its
inception. It was started and edited by Prof. Krishna Kant Mishra along
with ‘Amara’, Surendra Jha ‘Sumana’, and Sudhansu Sekhar Chaudhary.
‘Vaidehi’ has brought out a number of annual numbers of high literary
merit and some of them are extremely important. It has been the chief
forum of all types of writersand poets and has been serving the cause of
Maithili literature for more than two decades, without any break. , The
‘Vaidehi’ Samiti under whose auspices this journal is published, has
arranged two important All India Maithili Writers’ Conferences (1956
and 1963) and their publications speak volume about the quality and
quantity of the modern Maithili literature. Shri Somadeva is now also
associated with Vaidehi as one of its editor. The Vaidehi Samiti also
arranges literary meetings occasionally and one such meeting was
arranged in May 1971. In the field of children’s magazine ‘Batuka’
published from Allahabad has maintained its stability.
In the field of literary journalism, the publication of “Abhiv yanjana”
under the able editorship of Prof. Dayanand Mishra was a great step
forward. It marked a great advance over its predecessors. The journal
started with certain guiding principles of literary journalism and the
issues published gave evidence of their high standard and scholarship.
Some of the current problems of Maithili literature e. g. the Kirtaniya
drama, spelling, literary style were discussed in its issues. It was out
and out a literary journal. The journal is now extinct. ‘’Mithila Darsana”
of Calcutta has published and is publishing a series of literary articles.
The contribution of ‘Mithila Darsana’ in the growth of modern Maithili
prose is second to none. ‘Mithila Darsana’ has also brought out some
annual numbers of immense value.
The modern Maithili journalism owes its existence to persons like
Bhola Lal Das, Bhubneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvana’, Surendra Jha ‘Suman’,
Prof. Ramanath Jha, Prof. Krishnakant Mishra, Prof. Probodh Narain
Singh, Dr. Lakshman Jha (who started ‘Mithila’ weekly in 1953), Shri
Laxmipati Singh, Chandranath Mishra ‘Amara’, Sudhansu Sekhar
Chaudhary, Dr. Shailendra Mohan Jha, Dr. Brajkishore Varma, Prof.
Mayanand Mishra, ‘Saradendu’, ‘Vishapayee’, Harishchandra Mishra
‘Mithlendu’, “Hansraj” and others. They are otherwise known in their
respective branches but they have contributed a lot towards the
development of modern Maithili prose through journalism. The new
dimension of Maithili prose may be gleaned through the valuable
contributions of various writers in modern Maithili language. The
‘Mithila’ started by Dr. Lakshman Jha in 1953 also stood for refined prose.
Though short-lived, it brought to light in Maithili the translation of Mulla
Taqia’s diary relating to the history of Darbhanga. It was in refined prose
and it set a new standard of journalism. The publication of ‘Akhara’ from
Calcutta under the able editorship of Kirtinarayan Mishra and Birendra
Mallik, though short-lived, marked a tunring point in the history of
Maithili journalism and it also brought to light some unpublished works
of Raj Kamal. It has brought out sufficient materials on the life and works
of Raj Kamal. It was well received by all sections of people. Another
short-lived journal in Maithili was ‘Anama’. Another landmark in the
history of Maithili journalism is the publication of ‘Sonamati’ (Patna)
under the able editorship of Bharatibhakta. Amorg other important
journals are ‘Matrivani’ ‘edited by Dipak; ‘Mithila Times’ (edited by
Vijayakant Thakur), ‘Tatka’ (edited by Sandilya), ‘Bagmati’ (edited by
Vishwakant Pathak), ‘Mithilabhumi’ (edited by Prabhakar Mishra),
‘Sannipata’ (edited by Kulanand Mishra); ‘Mithila Aloka’ (from Ferozabad,
U. P.); Mini-journal from Calcutta (edited by Birendra Mallick); ‘Fulapata’
(from Nepal edited by Sundar Jha (Katmandu); Jyoti’ (Katmandu) edited
by Hardev Mishra and ‘Maithili’ (from Biratnagar edited by Lakshman
Shastri, Prafulla Kumar Moun and Ganeshlal Karna). “Maithili” has made
a name by publishing some research and thoughtful articles in its issues.
‘The Mithila Prakash’ (Calcutta, edited by Mahendra Narain Jha) is a
quarterly research journal in Maithili. Among all the existing journals,
‘Mithila Bharati’ (Patna-edited by Dr. Jagdish Chandra Jha and now by
Laxmipati Singh and Rajeshwar Jha) is decidedly the best research Journal
and can favourably compare with any research Journal in the country.
In its short span of three-four years, it has set a very high standard of
research in Maithili and besides the publication of this journal, the Mithila
Bharati institution has also published a critical reappraisal of Vidyapati:
Vidyapati-Ek Punarmulyankan. ‘Mithila Bharati’ is a journal of its own type
in the whole range of Maithili literature. The Maithili Sahitya Samsthan
(Patna) has also published ‘Jata-Jatina’ (Rajeshwar Jha) and ‘0 Je Kahalani’
(interview with Maithili writers) by Hansraj. “Changur” is the latest
addition to Maithili journalism. It is published from Saharsa. ‘Apana Desh’
is published from Darbhanga.
(II) Prose of Translations
Translations or adaptations from Sanskrit and other languages also
formed the basis of modern prose. Translations in Maithili are only few
and far between and whatever specimens are available are sufficient to
show the trend of contemporary Maithili prose. Dinanath Jha translated
‘Vicar of Wakefield’, Jaleshwara Singh Lamb’s ‘Tales of Shakespeare’,
Ratnananda Thakur, ‘Aesop’s fables’, Umanath Jha ‘Chapek’s Mother’,
Shivanandan Chaudhary ‘Bankim’s Kapalkundala and Mrinmayi, Chanda
Jha ‘Purusha-pariksha’, Murlidhar Jha ‘Mitralabha’ and ‘Hilopadesha’ and
also ‘Anushashana-parva’ of the MBH, Trilochana Jha ‘ Udyoga Parva’,
Gananath Jha ‘Adiparva’, Gunvantalal Das’, ‘Four Parvas of the MBH
Parmanand Datta ‘Kadambari’, Bhubneshwara Singh, ‘Meghaduta’,
Upendra Jha ‘Shivarajavijaya’, Jivanath Jha ‘Naishad’ and Prof. Ramanath
Jha ‘Stories from Kathasaritasagar’ into Maithili. These translations have
helped the growth of a systematic prose style in modern times. Umesh
Mishra’s translation of ‘Nalopakhyana’ and ‘Yaksha-Pandava-Samvada’ is
of a high order. Works of Gunvantalal Das, Parmananda Datta, Subhadra
Jha, Ramanath Jha and Umesh Mishra have not only brought smoothness,
ease, tenderness in modern Maithili prose but have also laid the
foundation of an accepted prose style of modern Maithili. They may be
taken as the best specimen of Maithili prose in modern times. Some
eminent literatteurs wrote stories based on the Sanskrit texts, e. g. Lal
Das wrote ‘Strisiksha’, Kulanand Das ‘Naladmayantikatha’, Ramanand
Thakur, ‘Samksipt Mahabharata’ and Chatradhari Thakur.
‘Sukanyopakhyana’ Surendra Jha ‘Sumana’, Chedi Jha, and Kashi Nath
Jha have also made some literary translations. The translations from
different languages acquainted Maithili readers with contemporary
literary trend and style and stirred their imaginations. No planned
translation work from different languages is yet in sight in Maithili,
though stray translations are daily coming out in the journals. Yoganand
Jha has translated the autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi and
Awadhkishore Jha translated Julius Caeser into Maithili in recent years
and these have been published in the various issues of ‘Mithila Mihir’.
Radha Krishna Chaudhary has translated ‘ Dhammapad’ into Maithili
prose (published-Calcutta-1971). This is the only Maithili translation of
that famous Buddhist Classic. Muktinath Jha has translated ‘ Paradise
Lost’ in Maithili.
(III) Fiction
It is in the field of fiction that modern Maithili prose has achieved
considerable success. The early period of Maithili fiction was dependent
on the Sanskrit sources and it had no independent character. Even the
language in the early period was faulty. Since the ideas were borrowed,
natural flow and grace in the language could hardly be expected. When
the independent stories and novels came to be written, the writers began
to use refined language suited to the occasion and the result was the
development of a smooth and graceful prose. Sudarasonapakhyana (by
Hari Narayan Jha) and Simantiniupa-khyana by Mm. Parmeshwar Jha
mark the beginning of the fiction in Maithili of the early modern period.
The first one is based on the story of the ‘Bhabishyapurana’ and is devoid
of all skill. Though an independent work, its plot is very slender. The
story centres around the love and marriage of Sudarshana and
Shashikala. Various devices are introduced in the story. The description
of events is didactic. The influence of Sanskrit mannerism and style is
perceptible. The character of the villain has been portrayed with success,
though from the modern stand point that is faulty.
The Simantiniupakhyana, though incomplete, is an epoch making
work on account of its dignified prose in commendable descrip-tive
passages. It is marked by artificial and cumbrous details and unnatural
and unrealistic dialogues. Simantini is the daughter of King Chitravarma
of Aryavarta. She was married to Kumar in continuation Chitrangada,
son of King Indrasana, She is destined to become a widow. The details
of her growth up to the age of fourteen and consequently her marriage
are nicely described. The extant story after marriage is left incomplete
and hence its importance, in so far as the plot is concerned, is insignificant.
This work marked a definite milestone in the development of modern
Maithili prose.
Pandit Jiwach Mishra is the first successful novelist of modern
Maithili. He was a great scholar and man of saintly habit. By nature,
temperament and mental make-up, he was out and out a literatteur. G.
A. Grierson and Pandit Ambica Datta Vyas were his fast friends and
they always discussed literary matters in their correspondence. Though
a pioneer in the realm of modern Maithili novels he was also a writer in
Hindi. His Maithili novel ‘Rameshwara’ deals with the social problem of
Mithila. Grierson highly commended this work in one of his letters
addressed to the author. The story is very simple. Rameshwara spends
every bit he had on the occasion of the last rites of his father and becomes
a pauper. In search of livelihood, he roams from place to place, falls a
victim to unforeseen circumstances, gets in bad company, is separated
from his wife and his son. He ultimately gets over the difficulties and
meets his wife and son. The plot is simple but it has not been successfully
handled. The language is simple and direct and a bit different from what
we use today. The novel lacks in many things but as the earliest Maithili
novel of modern times, it has certain historical value of immense
importance. He is believed to have written another book ‘Vichitra
Rahasya’. It is a matter of great satisfaction that his grand-daughter,
Kamakhya Devi (alias Nirja Renu), also writes good prose.
Janardan Jha Janseedan’s ‘Sashikala’, though incomplete, has been
more carefully handled with a greater grasp over the situation. It begins
with the birth of a son to Ganeshwara Jha (father of Shashikala).
Ganeshwar was a court pandit and he, therefore, took leave to see his
first born son. While he is at his home, he is reminded of the necessity of
arranging Shashikala’s marriage. Ghataka Sudarshan Thakur appears
and the novel abruptly ends. Janseedan’s command over the language
is tolerable. His other novels include ‘Satisarvasva’, ‘Nirdaya Sause’ (cruel
mother-in-law), ‘Kaliyugi Sanyasi 0 Dhakosalanand’ ‘Punara-vivaha’ and
‘Dviragmanarahasya’. ‘Punaravivaha’ deals with the social problem arising
out of a second marriage in an old age. Janseedan was thoroughly
conversant with the western knowledge and culture and was hinself a
greast social reformer, He advocated the cause of female education.
Through his thought-provoking novels, he sought to bring to light some
typical social problems of Mithila. He has the charming manner of
narrating the story though his characterisation is immature. His language
shows a remarkable advance over his predecessors.
The era of novel writing was formally inaugurated by Rasbe-hari
Lal Dasa (author of ‘Mithila-Darpana’) whose novel ‘Suamati’ did a
tremendous services. It is an allegorical and didactic story and the lessons
are taken from the life of the hero, Manoratha Labh. The theme centres
round the extravagant expenditure, pomp, splendour and show on the
occasion of the marriage ceremony in a Kayastha family. The author has
a moral tale to tell and that is that the extravagance brings disaster. When
the heroine, Sumati, daughter-in-law of Manoratha Labh, arrives, she
manages things so well that fortune of the family take a better turn. A
character known as ‘Uchitabakta’ (frank commentator) is introduced like
the Greek Chorus at intervals. With vague and indistinct characterisation,
the author has not been successful in weaving the plot. The subject matter
is interesting as it touches an important aspect of the social lite of Mithila.
In spite of its crude handling and lack of interesting skill in narrating
the story, ‘Sumati’ may be regarded as the first successful attempt at
writing a modern novel in Maithili where the story is commented upon
by directly addressing to the readers.
“Manushyaka Mola” (Value of Man) and” Vivaha” (Marriage) by Bhola
Jha are in many respects successful social novels and they deal with the
typical social problems facing every family in Mithila even today. The
first novel shows how the parents of Harshanatha sells everything to
get him married in Kulina-Bhalamanusha family (of high social status
and rank). After marriage, Harshnath sends his wife to her father’s home
and he himself proceeds to Calcutta to earn his livelihood. His wife got
a very contemptuous treatment at her father’s house and she commits
suicide. After learning the events, Harshanatha turns a Sanyasi. The story
is effectively brought out in a clearcut style. ‘Vivaha’ is the tragic end of
a girl who is married at an immature age. Though the plot construction
is better, the command over language and style is much below the
average.
Punyanand Jha wrote ‘Mithila Darpana’. He has been much
influenced by the Bengali novelists of his age. His ideal hero, Yogananda,
is educated on western lines. He, through his novel, advocates the reform
proposed by Maithila Mahasabha.
The most dominating novelist of the modern Maithili literature is
Professor Harimohan Jha. His facile pen has made Maithili readable over
a large part of eastern India and his stories are now translated into all
the languages of India. His witty remarks are simply superb. He has
acquired a name not only for himself but for the language itself. It is to
his lasting credit that in spite of his satirisation of almost everything old,
he has succeeded in becoming popular and is widely read on account of
his wit and common sense.
His novel like ‘Kanyadana’ (1930-33; already filmed) and
‘Dviragamana’ form a pair. The story of ‘Kanyadana’ is as follows:
‘Chandicharan Mishra, a Maithili youth well versed in English
novels and books and full of admiration for western type of women,
is married to a poor illiterate village girl named Buchchi Dai. His
dreams for a modern up-to-date girl thus stand shattered. It is on
the fourth night of marriage that he learns that his wife is
unsophisticated, quiet, inadept and illiterate. She does not know
any modern manners. In the next volume, he is reconciled and
agrees to live with her if she receives training in western manners.
Her brother, Revatiramana, takes her to Benaras and educated her
and then the “Dviragamana” takes place. It is very remarkable that
these two novels (though forming part of one) are immensely
popular in conservative Mithila. He advocates the cause of female
education in a very subtle manner. The originality of the work lies
in the fact that he successfully brings to the fore the conflict of
ideas between the old and new school in a most humorous and
satirical manner. He is criticised by the conservative circle but
admired by the modern youth. The characters of the novel are more
interesting than the hero and heroine. Dr. J, K. Mishra says :
“The characters of the trumpet-tongued Dhunmunkaki; the everwelcoming
Avesharani; the poor simple mother of the heroine, Lalkaki,
and the uptodate Barkagamabali; Batukaji, who like Meredith’s Austin
Wentworth, appears to be author’s mouthpiece; Jharkhandinath, the
important simpleton, who goes to a Doctor to get a telegram translated
to him; Tunni Jha, the Ghatakaraj, who classifies the settlement of
marriages into three classes : Khankhanaua; Tantanaua, and Thanthanaua;
Lalkaka, who passes the bonds of comic and reaches the outskirts of tragic
world; and Revatiramana alias Kantir, who is anxious to marry his sister
to a ‘modern’ gentleman with the prospects of high positions of life and
is always ready to reconcile what has gone astray ...are one and all
masterly creations.”
Besides being a master humourist, Harimohan Jha is a skilful satirist
and a successful comedian. What thousands of reformers failed to do in
the last hundred years, Harimohan Babu did it with a stroke of his pen.
The pen, in this case, is mightier (not only) than the sword but also the
voluminous speeches. Chandi-charan, the hero, is a supersensitive
individual and the author believes that he continues to be so even after
his painful experience with Miss Bijuli. His idealism continues till he
returns to normality by the petty device of introducing a ‘Mahatma’ (who
is none else but the father of his father-in-law) who advises him that the
education of girl should be conducted in accordance with the Indian
tradition and not on western lines.
As a worthy son of his worthy father (Pandit Janardan Jha
‘Janseedan’) Harimohan Babu has imbibed the real spirit of Mithila. His
novels bear the impress of Hardy and Shakespeare and his command
over the language, colloquial idioms, construction of sentences and the
way of putting things, in an original manner are superb. He has
succeeded in creating a school of short story. His pungent criticism of all
the social evils of the time through his writings has earned a name for
him and has contributed a lot to his success. He is a master artist-novelist,
short story writer, humourist and also a poet. Besides these two novels,
Harimohan Babu has also published such humorous collections of stories
like ‘Vikat Pahun’, ‘Rangasala’, ‘Khattarkakaka Taranga’ and many other
things. Harimohan Babu is the most well read author in modern Maithili
and his poems are equally pungent but humorous. He had made Maithili
popular outside Mithila.
Kanchinath Jha ‘Kirana’ is yet another name to conjure with in so
far as the modern Maithili fiction is concerned. He generally writes
serious and thought provoking essays and articles but at the same time
he is a great poet and novelist. As a writer of refined prose, he ranks
high equally as a novelist. His novel ‘Chandragrahan’ depicts the scene of
a bathing festival at the Ganges near Simariaghat (District Begusarai
now marked by the famous Rajendra Bridge), where such congregations
take place on all auspicious occasions like lunar eclipse, the solar eclipse
or the like. The theme of this novel centres round the rescuing of a lady
from a ruffian at Simariaghat where she had gone to take a bath on the
occasion of a lunar eclipse (Chandragrahana). His description of nature
and of the variegated colour of the multitude in the congregation is
beautiful and at times exciting. His power of imagination is marvellous.
He is a senior writer and his novel was written long before Harimohan
Babu’s. ‘Kirana’ is a man of the earth and sees things from common
man’s point of view. He is capable of calling spade a spade. Very few
outspoken persons of his like are there in modern Maithili literature. He
has discoverd some unknown Maithili songs and has written critical
essays and articles on themes relating to Maithili language and literature.
“Chandrabhaga” of Shrikrishna Thakur and ‘Madaniapirijata’ of Tulapati
Singh are full of apparent worldly wisdom and written in a neat prose
style. They may be classed as romantic Maithili folk-tales. The ‘Chamunda’
of Lakshmipati Singh is a thrilling historical novel. It relates to the
disappearance of the two daughters of Vardhamana to their honour from
a Mughal Government Official. Laxmipati Singh is one of the successful
prose writers and critics of Maithili. Hari Nandan Thakura ‘Saroja’ wrote
a romantic novel in Maithili entitled ‘Madhavimadhava’.
Kumar Ganganand Singh (Ex-Education Minister of Bihar) was one
of the finest prose writers of Maithili. His novel ‘Agilaghi’ (The Agile
Girl), though incomplete, is an excellent piece of art. It deals with the
typical character of Mithila in a very subtle way. The intricacies of the
social problems among the various orders of the society have not escaped
his discerning eyes. It is a true depiction of the life of common man. It is
written with a great force and would have been counted as one of the
great novels of the age, had it been completed. It deals with the character
of an ordinary girl as she grows up. The beauty lies in the fact that he
has used the colloquial language over which he has unchallenged
command. His pen has amply succeeded in giving it a real literary touch.
His skilful talent is displayed in his characterisation. The novel brings
out author’s intense feeling. His artistic creation is accepted by all. The
gentle humour is praiseworthy. Kumar Sahib was a master prose writer
of this age and his studies of the Maithili dramas in Nepal have
been well received by the scholars. His ‘Panch Parmeshwar’, a short story,
is an important lierary piece of Maithili and it shows as to how perfect
he was in writing prose. He wrote with ease and his style has a grace of
it own.
Gangapati Singh wrote historical novel entitled ‘Ja yachandraparajaya’
(the defeat of Jayachandra). In his social novel, ‘Sushila’ he
describes the life of a child widow. Laliteshwar Mallick has written a
novel entitled ‘Dain’ (or witch) in a colloquial style.
Baidyanath Mishra ‘Yatri’ (Nagarjuna of Hindi) has created a stir in
the field of Maithili novel as well. Since Maithili does not provide
sufficient maintenance, Yatri has to write in Hindi to maintain himself.
His Paro marked a milestone in the history of Maithili novels since it
made a sharp break with the past. Birju, the hero, describes the story.
Parvati (the heroine—’Paro’) is the daughter of Birju’s father’s sister.
The tender and intimate relationship between Birju and Paro form the
subject matter of this novel. The delicate feelings which both had for
each other are brought out in clear terms and the limits of decency have
never been crossed. Paro is ultimately married to a heartless person and
dies in the throes of children. Her sufferings and mental troubles have
been depicted in a manner befitting the calibre of Yatri. It was criticised
in the conservative circle as a concerted attempt to insinuate incest but it
must be said to the credit of the author that he does not actually mean
that. The bringing out of tender feelings and the natural desires of the
hero and the heroine is an artistic skill and nothing more.
His language is racy, concrete, colloquial and concise. Yatri is a
master coiner of words and like a successful gardener he chooses the
best among the colloquial idioms both for his prose and poetry. His neat
idioms and vocabulary, vivid and lively description of events,
suggestiveness, graceful language and sublime thought mark him out
as one of the best novelists of modern Maithili. He has struck a new line
of action and has refused to be drawn to the beaten track either in prose
or poetry. He does not hesitate in brining into use the non-Maithili idioms
and phrases. He does not limit his scope to any particular point. As a
Marxist, he brings to the fore the contemporary social evils and gives his
own solution of all the problems. His ‘Balachanma’ (written originally in
Maithili and yet to be completed) pinpoints the exploitation in feudal
society. His ‘Navaturiya’ and ‘Baba Batesharanatha’ are equally important
from literary point of view.
Upendra Jha ‘Vyasa’ is a noted novelist and story witer. By
profession he is an engineer but he uses his pen more than his hammer.
His contributions in the domain of Maithili have been immense. In his
novel ‘Kumara’, he has very successfully discussed the rise and fall of
emotions of a young man, Vimala, when he comes into contact with the
Prabasi Maithilas of Manbhum. Being disappointed, he decides to remain
a bachelor but in the long run being forced by the ailing wife of his elder
brother, he marries a girl. After that he begins to realise his mistake of
not marrying earlier. The novel has been well managed and the language
is good. Village life, college life, love and romance are well-brought out
in this novel. ‘Vyasaji’ is a fine writer of sweet prose. He has been awarded
the Sahitya Akademi Prize (for 1969) for his ‘Du Patra’ (Two Letters)—a
novel written in a new style.
Yoganand Jha’s ‘Bhalamanusa’ deals with the social problems mainly
connected with the problem of marriage. As a reply to this novel,
Shardanand Jha wrote a second rate novel ‘Jayabara’, having little literary
merit. The ‘Banmanukha’ of Awadha Narayan Jha is vulgar. The
Mithilanka of ‘Mithila Mihira’ (1935) contains an account of the list of
writers and novelists. More than one thousand novels in Maithili are yet
unpublished. Other important novels include ‘Mala’ by Surendra Jha
‘Sumana’, ‘Seva’ by Ishanath Jha, ‘Vidagiri’ and ‘Virakanya’ by
Chandranath Mishra “Amara”. “Amara” does not seem to have acquired
the status, he has already in other branches, in his novels — they are
good but not remarkable if studied in the background of other
contemporary novels.
Dr. Brajkishore Varma Manipadma, author of about a dozen of
novels, has earned a name as a novelist. His published novel is
“Vidyapati”. It is a historical novel. It has many exciting passages and
the language is quite good. He is more historical than a literary artist
and his narration as a novelist has suffered. On the whole, the novel is
good but not completely free from verbosity. His ‘Ardhanarishwara’ is a
major contribution to Maithili as it displays his width of vision, grasp of
the complicated situation and grip over style and mechanism. He has
added a feather in his cap further by his another important novel ‘Lorika
Vijay’ based on the famous folk ballad of Mithila. His short novel ‘Kanaki’
is one of the few novels portraying the countryside and life of a
mushahara. His Naika Banjara has won for him the Sahitya Akademi
award. Mayananda Mishra has attained some maturity in the art of
writing novels in his “Bihari-Pani-Pathara”. The novel has raised a good
deal of controversy among the literary critics. His latest novel entitled
“Khota Aur Chiraiya” (Nest and Bird) attempts to depict the life of the
lower orders through the medium of novels in Maithili. “Agi-Mome-Pathr”
(Fire-wax-Stone) (a collection of stories) is another literaray attempt made
by Mayanand Mishra with success. He is more successful as a novelist
and short story writer than as a poet. Somadeva’s ‘’Chano Dai” and
“Brahma Pisach” deserve mention for their treatment of the topical
problems relating to our social life. Badri Narayan Das has written a
social novel entitled “Chandrakala”. It is without any literary merit.
Dhirendra’s “Bhorukba” is a progressive novel with idealism. His another
important novel is ‘Kado A Koila’. Gangapati Singh has written “Bachchaka
Mai” (a social novel). Lalita’s novel “Prithvip-putra” has evoked much
criticism in recent times. Jivakant’s ‘Du Kuhesa Ka Bata’ and ‘Nahi Katahu
Nahi’ and Ramanand Renu’s ‘Doodh-Phool’ are important novels of
modern times and deserves appreciation. ‘Dudh-Phool is a very successful
novel without making any reference to sex. It reflects the life of lower
order in Mithila.
Shailendra Mohan Jha, who has specialised in the study of modern
Maithili literature, has also written some important novels and short
stories. His critical studies are, of course, good. His novels deal with the
social life of Mithila and his characterisation, details and story deserve
careful consideration. His “Madhusrvani” is a very famous novel of
modern Maithili literature. Rajakamal has penetrating eyes and his pen
is equally powerful in depicting scenes and sceneries. He brings out the
main features of the evils of social life and his point of view in his own
characteristic way. His ‘Adikatha’ has been serialised in ‘Akhara’ and has
subsequently been published. That tells us about his earlier literary
experience in Calcutta. Raj Kamal’s collection of short stories has recently
been published from Sindri under the caption ‘Lalka-paga’.
Both Shailendra Mohan and Rajakamal are successful artists and they
have wonderful capacity to gauge the human feelings and emotions.
Shri Binod Bihari Varma’s ‘Nayanmani’ has been serialised in the Mithila
Mihir. It deals with the typical social problem of Mithila. Though a
promising start has been made here, it lacks the flourish of a finished
writer.
The most important social problem of Mithila in modern times is
the problem of marriage, education of girls, question of dowry and other
allied matters. The novels, written so far, hardly go beyond this common
theme with the exception of Yatri, Manipadma, Kumar Ganganand Singh,
Vyasa and a few others. These novelists have written on topics other
than this. With the growth of industries and change in the pattern of
village life, new theories are coming up. Messrs. Manipadama, Prabhas
Kumar Choudhary, Mathuranath Choudhary, Radhakrishna Chaudhary,
Somadeva, Ramdeva Jha, Shambhunath Baliase ‘Mukul’, Rupkant
Thakur, Benode Bihari Verma, Madhukar Gangadhar, Gangesh Gunjana,
Nagendra Kumar (author of ‘Sasara’phani—the Knot), Dhirendra,
“Shrish”, Shri Ramesh, Ilarani Singh, Gopikrishna Das, “Hansraj” and
others are fast coming up. Manipadma’s unpublished novels show a
new trend. The new trend has extended its grip over the new set of
writers. Shri Ramesh shows a promising career as a rising novelist and
short story writer. By profession, a Sub-Registrar, Ramesh writes typical
stories. Among the new comers in this new trend, Prabhash Kumar
Choudhary is the most successful artist. His penetrating analysis of the
situation and intense feeling for the characters show his artistic skill and
his only rival in this art is Shri Shambhunatha Baliase “Mukul”. Rajakamal
and Nagendra Kumar have the potentiaties of great artists but their
divided loyalty stands in their way of single-minded devotion to their
mother tongue, which is for the present is not as paying as it should
have been. Prabhas Kumar Choudhary’s collection of short stories ‘Nava
Ghar uthe-Puran Ghara Khase’ and Udayabhanu Singh’s collection ‘Jakkah-
Takhana’ have been acclaimed as good achievements of the modern
Maithili fiction.
Maithili, like the Bengali, was not fortunate in coming into closer
contact with the Christian Missionaries who served the cause of Bengali
language in its infancy more than the Bengali writers themselves. Even
the spread of English education in this area was very slow. As soon as
the Mathili novelists came into contact with the English and other
European literatures, they began to-lay their hands at the new dimensions
of their own literature and novels came to be written. The early Maithili
romantic folk tales passed as novels. The Maithilification of the art of
story writing and novels was yet without any definite idea of
characterisation or plot construction. The modern fiction was, for a pretty
long time, the apronstring of the Sanskrit Akhyanas. The course changed
after its contact with other languages, specially English. The social
complex of Mithila, arising out of the system of Kulinism, deserved notice
and its problems had, therefore, to be thrashed out. The novelists of our
century, therefore, took up the theme with all seriousness and discussed
the problem in their own way. Since prose was the best medium to express
their views, they took to fiction of all kinds. By and by novels made their
appearance with good honour acd successful characterisation of the social
life. The modern writers acquired mastery over this art. The Maithili
prose has yet to attain a good name in matters of style, standard and the
theme.
(IV) Short Stories
Among the short story writers Vidyapath Mishra (Katha samgrah),
Kali Charan Jha, Jagadish Mishra, Mahananda Mishra, Kalkumar Das,
Gunwant Lal Das (Mayapuri), Parmeshwar Mishra (Upahara), Harinandan
Thakur “Saroja” (Karnaphula) Lakshmipati Singh, Yatri, Dr. Brajkishore
Verma, Dr. Shailendra Mohan Jha, Professor Umanath Jha (Rekha-Chitra),
Prabhash Kumar Choudhary, Mayanand Mishra, Kishun, Shri Ramesh
and Gopikrishna are important and they represent different trends in
this branch of fiction. Kali Kumar Das and “Saroja” are the two important
writers of the early period. After the first world war, new themes came
to be tackled. New ideas and thoughts came to dominate the scene. The
various problems of life came to be tackled by a new set of writers.
Kripanath Thakur, Kanchinath Jha “Kirana”, NandKishore Lal Das,
Parmanand Dutta, Bhubaneshwar Singh ‘Bhuvana’, Kulanand Das
‘Nandan’, Jayanarain Mallick, Ramkrishna Jha ‘Kishuni’, Shri Lalita,
Mayanand Mishra, Prof. Amarnath, Jivakant, Ramanand Renu,
Nagendra Kumar, Rajkamal, Upendra Jha ‘Vyasa’, Dr. Jagdish Chandra
Jha, Prabhash Kumar Choudhary, Hansraj, Revatiraman Lal, Durganath
Jha ‘Srish’, Binod Bihari Varma, Manmohan Jha, Shashinath Choudhary,
Shambhunath Baliase ‘Mukul’, Shambhavi Devi, Subhadra Suhasini,
Nirja Renu, Budhinath Mishra, Shyamanand Thakur, Ramesh Chandra
Choudhary, and a host of others have made themselves famous as short
story writers in modern Maithili. Most of them are already known in
other branches of literature too and in this branch as well their
contributions are of no mean importance.
Their stories are important in as much as they express admirably a
tense sitution with the help of a sound knowledge of human characters.
Shailendra Mohan Jha in his collections of stories has displayed a
thorough understanding of the human mind. “Sumana” in his ‘Kalaka
Purashkara’ (Gift of Time) shows the contemplt in which the self-centred
bourgeoisie holds the claim of a genius among the working classes;
“Madhushravani” is based on the famous Mithila festival; ‘Brihaspakaseasha’
is a story based on the superstition that the latter part of Thursday is
inauspicious for undertaking any good work and ‘Kathamukhiti’ is
excellent from the literary point of view, ‘Bichchala Phool (selected flowers)
by Prabodha Narain is a good collection of short stories. Kumar
Ganganand Singh’s ‘Bihadi’ (Storm) describes the spirit of revolt among
the lower classes of Mithila. Umanath Jha’s ‘Adhka Ghanta’ (Half an hour)
reveals the activities of the mind of a young student. Manmohan Jha’s
“Jhagra” (quarrel), Yogananda Jha’s “Sanyasi’ and Amarnath Thakura’s
‘Gappa’ (Talk) are remarkable for their psychological treatment of the
subject in a lucid style. Upendra Jha’s ‘Bakari’ (She-Goat) gives the
psychological revelation of a mind. Budhidhari Singh “Ramakar’s
“Prayasa” (Attempt) is characterised by its sobriety and is a praiseworthy
effort. Manipadma’s ‘Purasha ka Mola” (Value of Man) and ”Kona Eliai”
(What brought you) are remarkable short stories and are full of human
value. Mayanand Mishra has made a survey of such contribution in one
of his articles. He made himself bus is successful story writer. Jagdish
Chandra Jha’s “Shibu’ is a very successful story and his characterisati
and plot construction and narration are in tune with the time. Jha has
written only few stories but Shibu is one of his masterpieces and show
his capacity of writing good short stories. Prof. Umanath Jha is a real
master in this respect and his few sketches are both psychological and
social. Phanishwarnath Renu, Kapildev Roy ‘Prabhakar’, Prem Shankar
Singh also write good stories and sketches. Kulanand Das Nandan’s
‘Chari Ana Kaincha’ is worth mentioning in the field of short stories.
Binod Bihari Varma has written some highly illuminating and
interesting short stories full of tenderness and pathos. His love of nature
and things rural is marvellous. His stories like “Kash Ka Phool”,
‘’Antaramukhi Basundhara”, “Machchaka Picinic” and others are interesting
and give us a vivid account of the people in and around the area
surrounding Kosi. His “Pallavi” will go down in Maithili as one of the
remarkable stories of modern times. It is the story of one night, spent in
a trading boat, carrying varieties of articles, on the Kamla-Balan in rainy
season. The characters involved are boatmen and the talks they hold
reveal to us the minds of unsophisticated and hard-working labourers
which see this world in the right perspective and feel the pinch of social
antagonism. The poise and the description are simply unique and the
language is in keeping with the story. It is based on personal experience
of such journey and hence the narrative has some added attractions. The
psychological tension has been brought out in a very nice manner. It
was published in Mithila Mihira in 1962 (November). On the whole it is
an excellent story He is also a novelist.
Shri Lalit’s collection “Pratinidhi”, Gangesha Gunjana’ ‘Anhar-Ijot’,
Rupakant Thakura’s “Momakanaka”, Krishnakant Mishra’s “Chayanika”
and Hariohan Jha’s “Gappasappa Viveka” are important reading materials
in modern Maithili literature. Gangesha Gunjana and Prabhash Kumar
Chouduary are the promising writers of modern Maithili fiction and
their wide imagination and style have attracted the notice of discerning
critics. They along with Madhukar Gangadhara, “!Renu”, Sambhunath
Baliase “Mukul”, Shri Ramesh and “Somdeva” form the core of the
modern Maithili fiction. They have enriched the Maithili fiction in many
ways and have considerably helped the growth of a refined colloquial
speech. Prabhaskumar has a good insight into the current problems. Shri
Ramesh has discerning and penetrating eyes through which he depicts
the contemporary life in a characteristic manner. ‘Renu’ is the man of
the people and is attached to the soil. Madhukar Gangadhar has the
flavour of a style and ‘Somadeva’ is under the influence of Freud and
Marx. All of them are good feature writers. Rajakamal’s (i) ‘Katha Paraga’,
(ii) ‘Lalka Paga’; (iii) ‘Nirmohi Balam Hamara’ and (iv) ‘Ek Anari Ek Rogah’
also deserve mention. Shri Ramesh is a prolific writer with a facile pen
but without any ‘ism’. Hansraja’s latest collection of stories ‘Satanja’ is
yet another contribution to the field of Maithili short stories. Upendra
Doshi’s ‘Prachodayat’ is yet another contribution to the Maithili short
stories in recent years. Ramanand Renu a gifted writer of stories and
novels, has given us a collection of short stories in recent year entitled
‘Kaachota’. Kumar Kant’s ‘Sehanta’ also deserves notice. Rajmohan Jha is
a good story teller in his mother tongue and he has a very forceful style.
He has recently published collection of stories entitled ‘Ek Adi, Ek Anta’.
Prafulla Kumar Singh ‘Moun’ has a facile pen and has given us more
readable material than many of the short stories already published. He
has specialised in folk culture and he is an eager researcher. Manmohan
Jha’s ‘Meenakshi’ is also a good story. Samarendra Kishore Varma has
published ‘Govara’. Bindeswar Mandual’s “Batak Bhent : Jindgika Genth”—
is a short but good social novel dealing with the typical social problem
of Mithila—connected with marriage.
In the field of story as well, Harimohan Jha surpasses all. He is
equally great in this branch and has been very popular with the people.
He writes with a gusto unparalleled in any modern Indian language
fiction. Humour and satire are his two armouries and social evils are his
forte. He brings to the scene typical social problem in a most readable
and humorous style. He is equally adept in touching the notable
sentiments of both male and female. He has been critical of all the
orthodoxy that is Maithila and has been a consistent supporter of
modernism. His arguments are all well-balanced and based on facts and
his command over language is simply charming. He has written
innumerable stories and some of them are collected in “Pran-yamadevata”
and in “Rangashala” and “Khattarkakakataranga” and in some other stray
collections. In the field of short story, Jagdipa Narain “Dipaka”, Jagdish
Prasad Karna, Dineshwar Lal ‘Anand’, Kumar Indranand Singh ‘Indu’,
Mahaprakash, Yogiraj, Subhash Chandra Yadava, Birendra Mallick,
Sukanta Soma, Subhadra Suhasini, Shanti Devi, Mridula Singh,
Shephalika Varma, Shyama Devi, Ramadeva Jha have also made notable
contributions. Ramadeva Jha’s “EkKhira Tin Phanka” deserves mention.
Shrimati Gauri Mishra has written some interesting short stories.
Rajendra Prasad ‘Vimal’ and Shabo Devi also deserve mention. Yatri is
a type by himself and deals mostly wilh the socio-economic problem.
Balrama, Saketananda, Janaka Kishore Lal Das, Dhumketu, Rajeshwar
Jha, and Ramanugrah Jha are successful short story writers. Among other
important writers of short stories and novelette are Birendra
Mallik, Kirtinarayan Mishra, Gangesa Gunajana, Maha Prakash,
Yogiraja, Shephalika Varma, Sukant Soma, Bindeshwar Mandal, Subhas
Yadava, Shiva Shankar Jha ‘Nrisingham, Subhas Kumar ‘Kant’ and
various others.
The modern writers and novelists want a new assessment of valueliterary,
aesthetic, philosophical, religious, social and political with the
help of psycho-analysis. These writers have dived deep into the dark
waters of human mind whereas Marxism helps them in reassessing the
whole thing in a new light. They want the existing values to be subjected
to scientific scrutiny. Social behaviour, aristocracy, purity of conduct and
moral earnestness all these are to be defined again. They also enquire
into the economic relationship of the rich and the poor, of the landlord
and the cultivator and advocate a better treatment of the havenots. They
are equally intent on being true to life which they intend to portray.
Realism in language has also been adopted. It has been rightly asserted
that the “greatest achievement of Maithili fiction has been to unify the
varied experiences of life and is worthy of being called as a highly
promising genre”. Before concluding it would not be out of place to
mention the publication of Pandit Rajeshwar Jha who, in recent years,
has published about a dozen of books in refined Maithili prose—both by
writing articles on different topics and by writing dramas, books etc.
‘Urvasi’ gives an example of his finest prose style whereas his
‘Kandarpighata’, ‘Vidyapati’ and other writings are indicative of his
multifaced genius. Besides these things he has written two important
books on the origin of the Maithili Alphabet and ‘Maithili Sahityaka
Adikala’. He had added grace to Maithili prose style in modern times. He
is one of the editors of ‘Mithila Bharati’.
(V) Essay
Essays came to be written in Maithili from the beginning of this
century and Mm. Muralidhar Jha may be regarded as a pioneer in this
field too. Extremely critical of social evils, he wrote didactic and satirical
essays which added grace to the emerging prose. He possessed a keen
and penetrating eye. He was the first to perceive the fast changing values
of life and through his essays he criticised the evils and advocated the
cause of progress. Ironical and satirical prose of this pioneer in the literary
circle created a stir and he was soon followed by many worthy successors
in the field. He is unparalleled in his style of prose even to this day.
Bhubneshwara Singh ‘Bhuvana’, Bholalal Das, the Datta brothers and
Narendra Nath Das carried forward the tradition to a great height. Kumar
Ganganand Singh, Dr. Amarnath Jha (also known as Professor Amarnath
Jha), Mm. Umesh Mishra, Jyotishacharya Baldeva Mishra, Kuseshwar
Kumar, Kulanand Das ‘Nandan’, Janardan Jha ‘Janseedan’, Raj Pandit
Baldeva Mishra, Surendra Jha ‘Suman’, Prof. Ramanth Jha, Dr. Subhadra
Jha, Dr. Upendra Thakur, the writer of these lines, and Dr. Parmeshwar
Jha & others have written some brilliant literary essays in chaste Maithili.
Some of them are well known for their outspoken criticism, sharpness
of language and strength of style. Profs. Damodar Jha and Shri Krishna
Mishra have also written good literary essays. The above mentioned
essayist are the prominent writers of to-day. Jyotishacharya Baldeva
Mishra has to his credit about a dozen of books containing his collection
of essays, biographies and other writings. He covers a wide range of
subjects for his essays. Mm. Umesh Mishra is well known for his style
which is serious, argumentative, concrete, concise and expository. As a
creative witer, his essays bear the imprint of his scholarly personality
and his contribution to the development of modern Maithil prose is
immense. Dr. J. K. Mishra also writes in fluent style and his essays, mostly
literary, are well balanced and critical.
“Vyas”, “Manipadma”, “Amara”, “Kishun”, Sudhanshu Sekhar
Choudhary, Amarnath Thakur, Umanath Jha and Dr. Upendra Thakur
are known for their racy language and style. They write essays on themes
of current interest relating to life, literature and history. They show
intelligence in perceiving the new values and are critical in their outlook.
The voluminous writer of sketches and skits, over and above his novels
and short stories, Professor Harimohan Jha, is also a great essayist.
Bholalal Das, though a traditionalist in the modern sense of the term,
is almost a moving store-house of knowledge on Maithili. He began his
career as a lawyer at Laheriasarai in later twenties but ultimately turned
his career as a publisher in course of time. He is the father of modern
Maithili and he sacrificed everything for the cause of Maithili between
1925 and 1940 A. D. His contributions in bringing renaissance to the
modern Maithili are yet to be assessed. He wrote on almost everything
to popularise Maithili and was the first to compile a list of books,
published or unpublishedi in Maithili when he was the Secretary of the
Maithili Sahitya Parishad. He has written a lot in prose. He possesses a
powerful style which is understood by all and sundry but he is also a
master in writing a tough prose as well. It is not possible to give a critical
estimate of all his writings here for want of space.
Ramanath Jha is a powerful prose writer and he has a style of his
own. He is regarded as the founder of a new style in modern Maithili
prose and his works include—(i) “Prabhandha Samgraha” (a collection of
his five essays dealing with the outline of early Maithili literature), (ii)
‘Nibandhamala’ (a collection of his essays on Vidyapati, Jyotirishwar and
allied subjects), (iii) “Prachin Maithili Gita”, (iv) ‘Kathkavya’; (v)
‘Kathasamgraha’ etc. contain the best specimen of the modern Maithili
prose. His style has its own individuality. He has also written
“Udayanakatha” in simple prose. Whatever he writes, he writes with
confidence. While editing ‘Sahitya Patra’ he advocated the cause of a
uniform prose style. Through biographies, history, criticism,
introductions, articles and speeches, he has really contributed towards
the systematisation of modern Maithili prose. His collection of articles
‘Prabandhasam-graha’ is unostentatious, uncontaminated by any ‘ism’, and
unspoiled by any pretensions. The very nature of his creative process
has to be individualistic. All his anthologies are prefaced by beautiful
introductions. His imitable elegance is seen in his addresses, editorials,
introductions, essays and research articles. He has only recently written
a very good introduction (in chaste, prose) in his edition of Vidyapati’s
Kirtilata.
Profs. Radhakrishna Chaudhary and Parmeshwar Mishra through
their varied writings have covered many aspects of the modern Maithili
prose. The essays written by all the above, mentioned scholars roll with
copious details, are full of vividness and some of them can rank with
first rate essays in any language. They are written as impersonal esays,
sometimes as dealing with the problems of art and life, sometimes out of
personal experience with unique examples of personal essays, sometimes
serious and philosophical (as in the case of “Sharantidha” and
‘Nilagaganaka Nilakamala’ serialsed in Mithilia Mihir by R.K. Chaudhary
attempting to give a seasoned account of some problems of Indian
thought. The new edition of the Darbhanga District Gazetteer (edited by
P. C. Roy Choudhary) observes— “Radhakrishna Chaudhry’s
‘Sharantidha’ has broken a new ground in the field of Maithili prose and
is a pointer to a new thought yet untouched by other writers”. Prof.
Vedanath Jha also writes a brilliant prose. His style is old and pedantic
but his command over the language is superb. His criticism and
bibliographical essays have been very important in the development of
modern Maithili prose. Suman Vatsayana is yet another prose writer in
Maithili. He also generally writes on biographical sketches and travel
details.
Miscellaneous
Maithili prose in recent years has been enriched by biographies,
philosophical dissertations, history, travel literature, critical studies of
various kinds. Colebrooke, Campbell, Fallen, Beames, Hoernle, Kellog
and Grierson are credited with having laid the foundation of a scientific
study of the language by collecting and publishing the extant materials
from diffarent sources. They were followed by the Bengali scholars like
N. N. Gupta, Khagendra Mitra and Biman Bihari Majumdar (his
contribution to modern Maithili is unique), Hara Prasad Shastri, P.C.
Bagchi, D. C. Sen, S. K. Chatterji, Sukumar Sen and others. They were
followed by Maithila scholars like Mm. Umesh Mishra, Bholalal Das,
Subhadra Jha, Ramanath Jha, J. K. Mishra, Sashinath Choudhry,
Shashinath Jha, Dineshwar Lal Anand and others. It was Chanda Jha
who laid the foundation of scientific studies in Maithili and he was
followed by others. He supplemented and strengthened the efforts of
Mm. Murlidhar Jha in creating modern Maithili prose and also in
preparing a scientific grammar and Dictionary. Chetnath Jha in his
introduction to Umapati’s Parijataharana in a very refined prose has traced
the connected history of the leading Maithili poets of the past. The work
of editing old texts with commendable introductions, in prose, of course,
has been carried forward by Mm. Ganganath Jha, Dr. Amarnath Jha,
Umesh Mishra, Narendra Nath Das, Ramanath Jha, Dr. Sudhakar Jha, J.
K. Mishra and others. Yadunath Jha ‘Yaduvara’ prepared a
comprehensive list of all the works in Maithili which was classified and
augmented by Raghunandan Das, Bholalal Das and Shashinath
Choudhry. Kumar Ganganand Singh has published some of the
important dramas of Nepal. Umesh Mishra has brought out complete
edition of Manabodha’s ‘Krishnajanma’ and has written many articles on
the history of Maithili literature. Shri Krishna Kant Mishra has written a
‘History of Maithili Literature’ in Maithili language. Chandranath Mishra
‘Amara’ has published ‘A Critical Study of the Development of Mathili’ in
Maithili language. ‘Sashinath Jha is a very good researcher and he has
written on a number of topics relating to the culture, history and language
of Mithila. He is also a poet. Durganath Jha ‘Shrish’ has published a
‘History of Maithili Literature’ in Maithili. Shri Balgovinda Jha ‘Vyathita’
has also written a history of Maithili literature in Maithili language. Dr.
J.K. Mishra’s ‘History of Maithili Literature’ was the first scientific attempt
at a connected history of the language.
Dinabandhu Jha’s ‘Vyakarana’ (entitled- ‘Mithila-Bhasha-Vidyotana’)
in Maithili language may be reckoned as one of the epoch-making books
in any language. The book is written in Sutra form with a lucid running
commentary in refined ornate prose. It is the most scientific and
exhaustive grammar written in any modern Indian languages. His
‘Sabdakosha’ and Dhatupaiha’ are equally important. Shri Bholalal Das
has written a Maithili grammar in a charming popular style. Murlidhar
Jha, Gangapati Singh and Kalikumar Das have also written Maithili
Grammars for various courses of studies.
Shivanandan Thakur’s ‘Mahakavi Vidyapati’ (written in Hindi) is a
major contribution. ‘ Vidyapati Kavyaloka’ by Narendra Nath Das, written
originally in Maithili but published in Hindi, is the only comparative
estimate of Vidyapati. N. N. Das has also published a comprehensive
account of Govinda das. Critical appraisals of Harimohan Jha’s
“Kanyadan” and Manbodha’s “Krishnajanma” have been published by
Radhakrishna Chaudhary and Shrikrishna Mishra. Radhakrishna
Chaudhary has published “Maithili Sahityika Nibandhawali”, “Mithila Ka
Rajnitik Itihas” and “Mithila Ka Sanskritik Itihas”, ‘Sharantidha’,
‘Dhammapada’ and ‘Nilgagana Ka Nilkamal’ in refined popular Maithili
prose. Among the important published works of literary criticism,
mention may be made of Jayadhari Singh’s “Kavya Mimansa” in fine
Maithili prose and another “Principles of Literary Criticim” in Maithili is
by Professor Damodar Jha. Jayadhari Singh’s ‘Kavya Mimansa’ is a major
contribution in the modern Maithili and it established the reputation of
the author as an eminent critic. He presents illustration of Rasas from
Maithili works and that is why the work is all the more important both
for the scholar and lay readers. Jayadbari Singh has earned a name not
only in the history of Maithili Iitertature but also in Indian history by his
recent contribution (in Maithili language) entitled ‘Bauddhagana me Tantric
Siddhanta’. It is here for the first time that the charya songs have been
critically analysed from the point of view of Maithili and then examined
for the study of the Tantras. All the fifty songs have been rendered into
Maithili with glossary of technical terms. He has very rightly called into
question the validity of Munidatta’s commentary. It is, no doubt, a
valuable contribution to the already existing literature on the Siddhas.
At places, he has raised thought provoking points by giving his own
interpretation of the obscure charya songs. Prof. Ramanath Jha has also
written ‘Alamkara Pravesh’ in simple prose.
Dr. Shailendra Mohan Jha’s “Brajabuli Kavya”, Dr. Durganath Jha
“Shrish’s ‘‘Maithili Nataka”, Mayanand Mishra’s “Maithili Galpa”,
“Maithili Ka Navin Kavyandolana” and “Adhunik Maithili Sahitya”; Govinda
Jha’s “Adhunik Bhartiyabhasha 0 “Maithili” “Maithili Ka Udbhava 0 Vikasa”
Radhakrishna Chaudhary’s “Gitinat tyakara Vidyapati”, “Prak-Vidyapati
Maithili Sahitya”, “Virat Kalpana” “Vidyapatikalin Maithili”, “Lal Das” and
many others; Prem Shankar Singh’s “Maithili Gadya Ka Vikasa me Chanda
Jha Ka Yogdana”, Ram Kripal Choudhary Rakesha’s “Lokagita ka
Mulatattwa”, Prafulla Kumar Singh Moun’s “Maithili Ka Bujjhowal” and
Baidyanath Jha’s “Maithili Sahitya: Utpati ar Bikas”, Principal Bholanath
Jha’s “Maithili Bhasa 0 Sahitya” are some of the major contributions to the
development of modern prose style in Maithili. These articles have been
written in dignified prose and they all deal with the various aspects of
Maithili literature. These writers have been guided by the western
method of enquiry and objectivity and their style is extremely polished
and thoroughly artistic. Dr. Jatashankar Jha has written good historical
research articles in Maithili. Profs. Navin Chandra Mishra, Vishwanath
Jha and Dr. Shaktidhar Jha are good critics and have written good critical
essays on different aspects of Maithili literature. Dr. Shaktidhar Jha, Dr.
Harimohan Mishra Dr. Upendra Thakur, Prof. Vedanath Jha and Prof.
Umanath. Jha write with ease and grace. They have written some valuable
articles, both of general and research nature. Besides being critics, they
are good prose writers. Among other contemporary writers of prose (in
stories, fiction, criticism and drama) are Dr. Vishnu Kishore Jha ‘Bechan’,
Dr. Jagdish Prasad Yadav, Professor Hitnarayan Jha, Dr. Balgovinda Jha,
Prof. Dhirendra, Dr. Madaneshwar Mishra and Professor Damodar
Thakur and Dr. Narmadeshwar Jha. Damodar Thakur is a good critic.
Dr. Premshankar Singh has produced a very good research work on
“Harimohan Jha”. He is a good critic and he has published papers on
Ankia Nata. As a book of criticism, Sudhansu Shekhar Choudhary’s
‘Vivecana’ is a good attempt. Ramesh Varma and Shri Prakasa Lal Das
write good criticism. As critics, both Dr. Laliteshwar Jha and Prof.
Parmeshwar Mishra have been very popular. They are scientific in their
approach and method. Rijkamal Choudhary, in his article on the modern
Maithili peotry, has nicely discussed the new tendencies obtaining in
modern Maithili poetry. This estimate is an indication of the new
dimension in the realm of modern criticism. Bisheshwar Mishra,
Kapileshwar Jha, Rajendra Lal Das, and Kali Kumar Karna, are rising
critics.
In the field of philosophy and history, Mm. Ganganath Jha, wrote
“Vedantadipika” in Maithili. “Samkhya Khadyotatika” by Kshemdhari Singh
explains the system in Maithili language in a popular manner. Mm.
Parmeshwar Jha’s ‘‘Mithila Tattva-Vimarsha” is the history of Mithila in
Maithili prose based mainly on tradition. Mm. Mukunda Jha Bakshi’s
“Mithilabhashamaya Itihas” gives an account of the Khandawala dynasty.
From the point of view of modern Maithili prose, these two works,
important though from the historical point of view, are unreliable. Mm.
Umesh Mishra’s “Maithili Sansakriti 0 Sabhyata” in Maithili prose is a
very important book and it deals with typical Maithili customs. The writer
of these lines has written the history of Mithila in Maithili language
awaiting publication. Dr. Durganath Jha ‘Shrish’ has written a very
succinct account on the recent trends in modern Maithili poetry as a
thesis for his Ph. D. degree and has also published his history of Maithili
Literature in Maithili. Dr. J.K. Mishra has written a critical account of
the ‘Kirtaniya Natak’ in Maithili in a remarkable prose. Murlidhar Jha,
Baldeva Mishra, Bholanath Jha and Ramanath Jha are good biographers
in Mithila. Dr. Brajkishore Varma in his series on ‘’Hunka San Bhet Bhel”
(I met him) in Mithila Mihir, and other journals, has given a good
biographical account of some of the important Maithili writers. The
‘Vyavaharabigyana’ by Bhekhanath Jha in simple prose is a good book
regarding Maithili social customs. Sumana’s introduction to Madhupa’s
Radhaviraha is one of the best examples of the refined literary prose style
in modern times.
The travel literature, though initiated earlier by Murlidhar Jha, has
been enriched in recent times by the modern writers. Chetnath Jha wrote
an account of his journey to Puri, narrating his personal experience in a
literary manner. Murlidhar Jha describes his enthralling experiences of
journey to Kashmir. With wonderful ease and grace, he compares and
contrasts his experiences in the hills with those in the plains. Ramaballabh
Sharma has written a good account of the Pashupatinath temple of Nepal;
Bubneshwar Jha of Manasarovara, Anand Jha of Haridwar and Kumbha,
Ramanath Jha of Benaras and Radhakrishna Chaudhry of Rameshwara,
Dhanuskoti, Kanyakumari, Madura, Madras, Kerala and Puri, Kamrupa,
and of various other places. Kumar Ganganand Singh’s “Maharajaka
Sang” (with the Maharaja), Dr. Subbadra Jha’s “Hamara Videsha Yatra”,
Dr. Jagdish Chandra Jha’s “London Ka Prabasha”, subsequently published
as ‘Sat Samundra Ka Par’ Sachinath Mishra’s ‘‘Account of Foreign Travel”
are some of the important contributions in the realm of travel literature.
Pulkit Lal Das ‘Madhura’ and Sashinath Choudhary have written some
good travel diaries and articles. Shri Hansaraj also write good criticism
and interviews. Sumana Vatsayana is a good writer on travel literature.
He has a facile pen and his power of description is charming. He is a
also a good biographer. He has written his experiences of Ladakh in
Maithili. He also writes articles on Budhism and other subjects in Maithili.
(VII) Drama
In modern times Pandit Chanda Jha (Ahalyacharitanataka) and Raj
Pandit Baldeva Mishra (Rajarajeshwaranataka and Rame-sodayanataka) tried
to revive the tradition of Kirtaniya drama and wrote with that end in
view. Chanda Jha quoted songs from Jayadeva, Vidyapati and other poets
in his drama. Baldeva Mishra was inspired by a story of the Skandapurana
for his drama in that tradition. With the passage of time, the Kirtaniya
drama lost all its vigour and importance. Jiwan Jha broke away
completely from the Kirtaniya tradition and wrote dramas in Maithili on
current social problems. He served the cause of Maithili prose and really
touched new ground. He made significant contributions to poetry as
well. The easy flow of his lines brought freshness to modern Maithili.
He has been rightly regarded as the founder of the modern Maithili
drama. He depended mostly on the forms of Sanskrit dramas. He was
not very much impressed by the didactic and allegorical dramas of
Shashinath Jha and Raghunandan Das. Jiwan Jha wrote (i) Sundarasanyoga
(1904)—narrated the story of the union of Sundar and Sarala; (ii)
Narmadasagarsattaka (1906)-plot is almost the same; (iii) Maithili Sattaka
(1906)—it is incomplete and gives the story of Sita’s marriage with Ram;
and (iv) Sambavatipunarjanma (1908-1920). It is in seven acts and is based
on the Puranic story of Sambavana and Sumedha. On being cursed by
Durvasa, Sambavana turns into a female and the story describes the
reactions of his second birth (punarjanma) as Sambavati on her people.
Through the help of Goddess Shakti, she is united to Sumedha.
Characterisation is excellent and fewer songs are more appropriately
used.
Lal Dasa’s “Savitri Satyavana” (1908-9) deals with the well-known
story. In this drama, the dialogues are excellent. Shashinath Jha’s
“Kalidharmaprakashika” (1911-12) is an allegorical drama in which the evils
of ‘Kaliyuga’ have been described. His ‘Acharyavijaya’ deals with the defeat
of the Buddhists at the hands of Maithila logicians, especially
Udayancharya. His dramas were not exactly meant for stage. The racy
language of these dramas is further enriched by the vividness of
imagination and smartness of dialogues. Though verses are there, songs
have been dispensed with. Munshi Raghunandan Das has tried to interest
his audience by means of abstractions and personification of virtues and
vices. His ‘Mithilanataka’ depicts the evils of Kali age and is allegorical.
Munshiji is credited with having brought a stage sense in the modern
Maithili drama. It depicts the evils of the present day Mithilathrough
allegorical characters and contrasts it with her glorious past. It carries
the message of awakened Mithila. His ‘Sudarshananataka is based on the
Puranic story., His ‘Dutangada Vyayoga’ deals with the going of Angada
to Lanka. Munshiji is well known for his with and sarcasm and his
characterisation is always well upto the mark. Here the incident is well
brought out into relief and the drama is well-planned. Anand Jha’s
“Sitasvyamvara” is verbose, satirical and unduly long. It deals with the
marriage of Ram and Sita. Several small characters have been introduced
and the dialogue between Parasurama and Lakshmana is remarkable.
Though the influence of Sanskrit dramatic convention is perceptible here,
it must be admitted that the characters are realistically brought out. In
Ishanath Jha’s “Chinikaladdoo” (Sweetmeat made of Sugar)
characterisation of Dewan Batuadasa is good and the element of humour
is predominant. It is a tragico-comic drama. Shyamanand Jha’s
“Parasadodayanatak”a is a well written drama. From literary and artistic
point of view the “Pherar” (Absconder) of Shardanand Jha is a very
successful drama. Krishnakarit Mishra has written “Atma Marayad.” (Self
Respect) Kirana’s “Jai Janmabhoomi” and Kashinath Mishra’s “Ayachi”
also deserves mention.
The only foreign drama to be translated into Maithili is Lessings’
“Mina” by Dr. Subhadra Jha under the pseudonym of Pakshadeva.
Sanskrit dramas have been successfully translated into Maithili by
Chetanath Jha (Mudrarakshasa), Raghunandan Das (Uttararamacharita)r
Achyutanand Datta (Prasannaraghava) Parmanand Datta (Mrchchakatika),
Vallabh Jha (Ratnavalinataka) Ishnath Jha (Shakuntala), Anandajha
(Prabodha Chandrodaya), Trilok Nath Mishra (Nagananda),Govinda Jha
(Malavikagnimitram), and Jiwanand Thakur has translated Bhasha’s
dramas. The translations, though extremely faithful, have given prose
for all passages of translations, and have thereby added grace to the
development of modern prose.
Some important stageable dramas have been successfully written
in modern times by a large number of Maithili writers The one-act play
of Prof. Harimohan Jha (entitled “Bouakadama -Price of the Boy or the
Groom) is full of fun and satire. ‘Kaolejap ravesha’ (Entry into College)
and ‘Upanayanakabhoja’ (feast on the occasion of Upanayan ceremony)
by Prof Tantranath Jha are based on the situation chosen from actual
life. Among the biographical dramas we have ‘Ayachi 0 Shankara’ (by
Jivanath Vidyabhushana) “Vidyavatinataka” (by Anand Jha and
Harinandan Thakur ‘Saroja’) and ‘Kanthahara” (by Brajkishore Verma
‘Manipadma’ . The last one is really an achievement of the modern
Maithili drama. It deals with the story of the life and times of poet
Vidyapati and the dialogues have been taken out from the poems of the
poet himself. ‘Munika Matibrama’ by Yoganand Jha lacks the sense of
stage. Other stageable dramas are ‘Harikabhoja’ (Harikant Jha),
“Ahalyoddhara” (by Jivanath Vidyabhusban and Kripakant Thakur),
“Jhalaka” and “Vasantamoda” (by Parmananda Datta), ‘Banihara’ (wageearner)
by Tripti Narayan Thakur, “Virakirti Singh” (by Govinda Jha),
“Sappata” (oath) by Tripti Narayan Lal, “Triveni” (by Prof. Parmeshwar
Mishra), “College Ka Chatra” (by Prof. Parmeshwar Mishra), “Raktaranga”
(Chandrakant Jha), ‘Bhutaka Chaya’ (Damodar Jha) and ‘Virachakra’
(Surendra Prasad Sinha).
The “Adhunikata” (Modernism) by Upendra Jha ‘Vyasa’ is unique in
the sense that the entire situation of modern life is visualised with a
thorough sense of the stage and it gives elaborate stage direction. From
the point of view of stage and historionics, Kumar Ganganand Singh’s
“Jiwanasamgharsha is a notable attempt at dramatic art deserving credit
and worthy of mention. ‘Rajyabhisheka’ (coronation) and
‘Nanyadevakadarbar’ (The Court of Nanydeva) by Radhakrishna
Chaudhary, are two historical dramas dealing with the two important
dynasties of Mithila. In the realm of drama and prose, as in the realm of
poetry, Maithili has entered a new creative era. The modern dramatists
have employed the historical plays and the dramas not only try to give a
realistic picture but also deal wiih the problems of urban life. The motive
of social reform has been replaced by the motif of diagnosis of social
problems, mostly civic and economic, with which the townspeople are
now confronted. One-act plays have become very popular and Dr.
Shailendra Mohan Jha’s “Mangru Pathaka’ and Dr. Brajkishore Varma’s
“Udanaka Grihagamana”, “Mithilakabeti” and “ Vidypati Elah” have became
very popular. The only literary radio-play “Ek Bap Ka Beta” by Mayanand
Mishra has been well-received. Some of the modern dramas possess high
literary merit. Among the new entrants in the field are Satyanand Das,
Gunjan and Surendra Prasad Sinha. New prose is fast coming up through
translations, short stories and various styles of dramas. “Piya Mor Balak”
by Shri Ramchandra Choudhary is a good social drama. The new
dramatists also deal with the conflict born of economic and social ills.
‘Kuhesa’ by Babu Saheb Choudhary breaks a new ground in the history
of modern maithili drama and it has been staged at a number of places.
Babu Saheb Choudhary is a sucessful dramatist and, besides being a key
figure in Maithili movement he is also a sucessful writer.
All kinds of prose are available in modern Maithili literature. Modern
short stories and dictions are influenced by the contemporary western
and other Indian literatures. They are all connected with the problems
of human life and contemporary civilisation. The writers of the modern
age differ in technique, plots and styles. Novels and short stories deal
with various problems and they are both pathetic and humorous. Besides
novels, short stories and dramas, criticism forms a major part of the
modern prose. Modern criticism is based on the principles of western
criticism. ‘Kirana’, ‘Amara’ and Ramanath Jha are good critics. Both
Jayadhari Singh and Buddhidhari Singh, Jaikant Mishra, Shailendra
Mohan Jha, Ramdeva Jha, Durganath Jha ‘Shrish’ and many others are
well known for their criticisms and critical writings. Radhakrishna
Chaudhary’s ‘Mithila’ in the Age of Vidyapati’ in English language may
be taken as a major contribution in the history of Maithili Culture and
Language. In the late sixties, Rajeshwar Jha dominated the scene of
Maithili prose through his writings on different topics. He has a powerful
pen and he writes with ease and glamour. In the last five years he has
published Dharma Vyadha Katha, Ekadasi Katha, Dukhia Baba Ka Khatras,
Maithili Sahitya Ka Adikal, Mithilaakshara Ka Utpati 0 Vikasa, Kandarpighata
(Nataka), Urvasi, Shastrartha, Maharaj Lakshmiswar Singh etc. and many
others including a number of articles and stories. No research journal in
Maithili had hitherto been regularly published but it was at his initiative
that a full fledged research journal named ‘Mithila Bharati’ was started.
It favourably compares with any research journal in any language and it
has rightly attracted the attention of various scholars of the country.
‘Mithila Bharati’, like the ‘Sahitya Patrah’ (now extinct), has been the
breeding ground of ‘Modern Maithili Prose’ for the last three or four years.
Bharatibhakta is editing ‘Sonamati’ and P. K. Moun has recently started
‘Maithili’ (a monthly Journal from Viratnagar-Nepal). Maithili journals
are short-lived but even then they contribute a lot towards the formation
of style and language and many new writers come up. ‘Maithili Prakasha’
is another important researeh journal in Maithli and is published
regularly from Calcutta.
Journalism has played a great role in the development and
refinement of modern Maithili prose. The scope of modern prose is very
wide and it includes everything concerning human life. The amusingly
appealing essays with their sharp observation have brought to bear on
contemporary life and problems and fondness for good humour in
preference to the heavy and angry satire. The language has been
standardised through essays. The modern prose style has succeeded in
revealing personality that is intensely sincere and genuine. It is alive to
the needs of modern times though much remains to be done in different
branches of knowledge.
(IX)
The cyclonic blast of the Gandhian movement broke the old tradition
of social conservatism and the break was further heightened and
intensified by the growth of radical and revolutionary ideas fostered by
the younger group of writers. The influencesof Rabindranath, Kazi
Nazrul Islam, Jasimuddin, T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound on the modern
writers and poets is immense. The Maithili writers soon came to realise
that they were enslaved more by their own social customs and they
attempted to shake off the mental lethargy. The muse of the younger
groups derived its inspiration from the new trends of thoughts influenced
by Freud and Marx and by the Hindi Romantics. When the entire nation
was going through an unprecedented upheavel, the intellectuals felt a
great fascination for the social experiment and Marxist political ideology
creating global enthusiasm for have-nots and the underdogs. To the
Marxist political Utopia was added the supposed discovery of Freud, of
a new psychology of the sub-conscious. The study of these two thinkers
led to the establishment of progressivism in modern Maithili literature.
“Yatri” represents the Marxists while ‘Somadeva’ and May anand
represent the Freudian. ‘Yatri’ is a force to reckon with inmodern Maithili
literature. He possesses a powerful pen , and we find in his literary
craftsmanship alone an undeniable force and individuality.
Phanishwaranath Renu’s short stories reveal village life and an unusual
insight into the mind of the rural folk. Gangadhar Das who writes with
equal force in Hindi and Bhojpuri, is a powerful progressive writer and
poet in Maithili. Among the progressive writers we may mention “Kiran”,
“Amara”, Yatri,, “Manipadma”, “Somadeva”, Mayananda, Ramanand
Renu, Gunjan, Jiwakant, Shri Benode, Kirtinarayan Misra, Dhirendra,
Mahaprakasha Sukant Soma, Lalita, Subhas Yadava, Subhas Kumar and
others. Through the efforts of these progressive writers, the common
man has been brought into the magic circle of literature in a dignified
manner. Their writings convey the indescribable suffering of the toiliing
mass of humanity.
Rupnarain Choudhary has recently published his collection of poems
entitled “Aripana”. The recent publications include ‘Mudrakshasa’ by Dr.
Sudhakar Jha, ‘Suloma’ by Ilarani Singh and ‘Anher Nagari’ by Prof.
Prabodh Narayan Singh. The modern Maithili prose has developed with
the time and is no now capable of communicating new thoughts and
ideas to the people at large. In modern times, Maithili poetry, short stories,
novels and dramas are being translated into different languages.
Freshness and lucidity are the remarkable features of the modern Maithili
prose. The Gandhian impact on Maithili literature cannot be said to be
everlasting. Mithila is economically poor though rich persons are also
there. The lower orders consitute the majority and in the last twenty
years forces of socialism have gained ground by leaps and bounds.
Naturally, Maithili literature came to be influenced by these forces and
new forms and techniques came to be employed both in prose and poetry.
Whereas the characters, depicted in the novels and stories, were mostly
from the upper castes till the middle of the fifties, now writers have
chosen their characters from lower orders and such novels and short
stories have had wider appeal. Phanishwara Nath Renu, Yatri, Ramanand
Renu, Benode Dhirendra, Manipadma, Kirtinarayan and Jivakant have
come down from the high pedestal of aristocracy and have chosen
themes from the despised classes. These classes are now coming up
of their own and Maithili literature is bound to be affected by them in
course of time. Moun has specialised in Folk literature and it seems that
he is following the footsteps of Manipadma in this matter. He has also
written a detailed account of the history of Maithili literature in Morang
(Nepal).
Among the recent writers in Maithili are Bhagyanarain Jha, Badri
Narayan Jha ‘Bipra’, Saketanand, Laxmi Prasad Shrivastava, Mohammad
Isfarul Islam, Janab Hazrat Sabir, Hazrat Baksh Shahmani, Fazlul
Rahman, Shaukat Khalil, Samarendra Kishore Varma (author of short
stories ‘Govara’), Janak Sahni, Late Dasai Raut, Dr. Bhubneshwar Prasad
Gurmaita (has done commendable research work on ‘Varnanratnakara’),
Dhaneshwar Jha ‘Kishore’ (author of ‘Piyasali’ Novel), Ram Sharan Sing
[(author of a novel named ‘Shyama’), Gangadhar Mishra (Sudamacharita,
Sukanyopakhyana), Dhiradevi (Geetavali), Shyamanand Jha (Geetavali),
Mahinath Jha ‘Shardavijayanatika’ and Kavitavali’, Late Binodanand Jha
‘Binu’, Khelanath Jha ‘Khelesh’, Prof. Harihar Jha, Rajballabh Singh
Rathor, Rambharosh Kapari Raman, Kalesh, Rakesh etc. They are
occasional writers and write on different aspects. There are few good
‘Marsia singers’ in Maithili among the muslim community. In recent years
Mantreshwar Jha has made a valuable contribution in the realm of poetry
and short stories. He also writes sketches. Though a new entrant in the
field, his writings bear the imprint of seriousness and he holds a facile
pen. He is a promising writer. Sri Bilat Paswan “Bihangam,” a politician,
is by nature and habit a poet of repute and has secured a place in modern
Maithili literature,
(X) Retrospect
As one of the oldest languages of India, Maithili has maintained its
freshness throughout the ages. The earliest specimen is found in the
seventh-eighth centuries of the Christian era. The period from 1200 A.
D. onwards constitutes a landmark in its history. The language registered
a definite advance and its secular use can be gleaned through the pages
of the ‘PPm’ In the middle ages, it was elevated to the pedestal of a
classical language. It was so both in form and elasticity. The style of
Jyotirishwar reminds us of Bana and the poetry of Vidyapati that of
Jayadeva. The master singer, Vidyapati, has been rightly called the
nightingale of eastern India. We can simply marvel at the sweep of his
imagination ranging from normal human love to love which transcends
the individual plane and melts into impersonal ecstacies.
Vidyapati’s eminent contemporaries and his worthy successors
dominated the literary scene in the whole of eastern India and the
imitators gave birth to a hybrid (mongrel) language. For his emotional
attachment to Krishna, Chaitanya’s indebtedness to Vidyapati and
Vishnupuri is open and above board. Drama was not neglected. The
period following Vidyapati is marked by its preference for drama and
its musical qualities. The dramatic tradition was carried to Assam and
Nepal. The Maithili translation of Gitagovinda by Ratipati Bhagat (in
poetry) is unique and has not suffered in lucidity and expressiveness.
Whereas the dramas conceded to popular taste and demand, some writers
used ornate language on the pattern of Sanskrit. In the middle ages, the
language remained stereotyped with practically no inclination to change.
The fourth decade of the 19th century A. D. marked the beginning
of a new epoch in the history of this language. Its inherent qualities were
brought to light by the efforts of scholars. The devotional and secular
writings of the period formed a class by themselves. The tradition of
epic poems set up by Manbodh was continued with equal vigour by the
writers of the modern period. Chanda Jha, Jiwan Jha, Lal Das and
Raghunandan Das tried to interest the Maithili readers by means of their
varied writings. Maithili has the unique privilege of possessing a
grammar entitled “Mithilabhasha Vidyottana” which has been rightly
claimed as the ‘Abhidhanachintamani’ of the language. The author of this
brilliant volume is also otherwise well known to us.
The twentieth century has witnessed the growth of Maithili in all
directions. Prose and Poetry have received equal attention. It has all the
literary possibilities and recent publications from Allahabad, Calcutta
and Darbhanga bear testimony to the fact. In recent years Maithili books
on different subjects have been written and published, though it needs
to be enriched further in the realm of social sciences, technology and
natural science. It has yet to catch the fast developing industrial world.
The deficiencies are many in different branches and they have to be made
up before it can acquire competence with other languages of India.
Attempts are, of course, being made to tackle these problems in modern
times. A growing literature is bound to grow in accordance with the
needs of the people whose mother tongue it is. The beauty of the language
lies in its perpetual freshness and that beauty is being refined more and
more by its writers. It is not possible to give a detailed account of the
various achievements of the Maithili literature in a limited space but the
main features have been brought out in this short compass.
Appendix-1
List of some important and
recent Publications in Maithili
The present survey was ready for the press in 1965 but due to certain
unavoidable reasons it could not be published in time. It was revised
again in 1969 and is being published in 1976. Hence if was thought
desirable that an appendix should be added at the end to enable the
readers to form an estimate of the new trend in modern Maithili. As a
matter of fact, Maithili, during the last ten years, has made tremendous
progress and even a cursory glance over the list would convince even a
lay reader of the progress it has made in recent years. Two trends are
discernble, one represented by the old school and the other represented
by the new school, popularly known in Maithili as ‘Navalekhan’ (new
writing). As it is not possible to give a critical estimate of these writings
in different branches, I have just given a list of all important publications.
A sober critic may utilise this list and may examine the trends now
obtaining in the field of Maithili. A critical and a short account of the
recent trends and nature of the modern Maithili by me is published in
Maithili Prakash (1973 issue, Calcutta).
Since 1966, annual review is being published in the Indian Literature
(Journal of the Sahitya Akademi) but all impartial critics would agree
that these reviews are, as will be evident from J. K. Mishra’s survey
published recently in Sahitya Akademi’s Volume, on post independence
Indian literature, not upto the mark. I have in my possession an article
(written in Maithili and submitted for publication in a journal) by Shri
Binod reviewing the achievements of Maithili literature in 1971 but the
same was not published and the matter was used by the editor in a
different context. Very recently Shaktidhar Jha has published critical
articles on the identity and independence of Maithili language and how
it has been wrongly interpreted and understood by the protagonists of
Hindi. The study of Shaktidhar Jha deserves to be pursued further from
linguistic point of view.
In recent years all types of trends are discernible in the field of
Maithili. Hardly a decade back, we had nothing on scientific and technical
subject but there are writers who write in Maithili on all types of scientific
subjects. In this connection the writings of Kamdeva Shrivastava and
Shri Binod deserve mention. Sahdeo Chaudhary, Ganganand,
Rameshwar Chaudhary and various others have made notable
contributions in the field of scientific writing. Jiva Narayan Jha. Dr.
Sambhunath Jha, Kalikant Mishra, Padma Narain Jha ‘Viranchi’, Sudhir
Kumar Jha and Lalitesh Mishra have also written on different scientific
subject. Articles on history, economics, political science, sociology and
other branches of humanities have also come out in recent years and
eminent writers of Mithila have contributed a lot in this respect. While
the Sahitya Patra of Darbhanga published a series of Classics, the Mithila
Bharati of Patna has proved beyond any shadow of doubt that research
papers on modern scientific lines on all subjects could be written in
Maithili with success. In the field of modern journalism, names of Dinraj
Sandilya, Bharatibhakta, Kirtinarayan Mishra, Somadeva, A. C. Dipak,
Kulanand Mishra and Virendra Mallik deserve mention. Journals in
Maithili are short lived but the number of Journals and periodicals
published so far, shows that in this field too, Maithili is not lagging
behind.
In recent years, many new writers have emerged with new outlook
and in this connection we have to say that people from various states
have adopted Maithili as their medium of writing. Yogeshchandra
Mishra, Laxmeshwar Mishra, Fazlur Rahman Hashmi, Awadh Kishori,
Pranati Chaudhary, Qamar Naqbi, Shaukat Khalil, Subhas Yadava,
Kunwar Kant, Mantreshwar Jha, Sukant Soma, Mahaprakash,
Shivashankar Jha ‘Nisinghen’, also ‘Kant’ and others deserve mention.
Somadeva has propounded the theory of Sahajatavad in Kaladhvani.
Among the critics Narendra nath Das, Durganath Jha Shrish, Jaikant
Mishra, Vedanath Jha, Markandey Pravasi, Digamber Jha Mohan
Bhardwaj, Ramanugrah Jha, Shankar Soma, Udayachandra Jha ‘Vinod’,
Sudhanshu Sekhar Chaudhary, Mayanand Mishra, Raj Kamal
Chaudhary, Birendra Mallick, Jivakant, Radhakrishna Chaudhary and
others have made remarkabe contributions. Subhakant Mishra has made
a balanced review of ‘Bal-sahitya’. Prem Shankar Singh has made a critical
study of the concept of Purushartha in Vidyapati. In recent years, studies
on the different aspects of Prakrit and ‘Kirtilata’ and ‘Kirtipataka’ by
Vidyapati by Virendra Srivastav also deserve special mention. Valuable
contributions have been made by the publication of the Chetna Samiti
(Patna) and of the Maithili Sahitya Samstham (Patna). The list of important
publications in Maithili in recent years is appended below.
Novel
Author Novel
1. Dhirendra (i) Bhorukba
(ii) Kado Aa Koila
2. Sudhansu Sekhar (i) Tarpatta upper Patta
Chaudhary (ii) E Batah Sanar
3. Somadeva (i) Hotel Anarkali
(ii) Chano Dai
4. Manipadma (i) Vidyapati
(ii) Ardhanariswara
(iii) Raja Salhesa
(iv) Lorika Vijaya
(v) Naika-Banjara
(winner of Akademy award)
(vi) Dulara Dayal
(vii) Kobra Girl
(viii)Kanki (novelette)
(ix) Analapatha
5. Prabhas Kumar (i) Abhisapta
Choudhary (ii) Yugapurusha
(iii) Hamara Log Rahab
6. Jivakant (i) Du Kuhesa Ka Bat
(ii) Panipata
(iii) Aginaban
(iv) Piar Gulab Chhal
(v) Nahi, Katahu Nahi
7. Ramanand Renu Dudh-Phool
8. Lalit Prithviputra
9. Raj Kamal Andolana
10. Mayanand Mishra Khota Aa Chirai
11. Shashikant (i) Girahkatta
(ii) Akasadeepa
12. Trilokanath Mishra Ranjana
13. Bindeshwar Mandal Bat Ka Bhent, Jindagi Ka Genth
14. Vidyanath Jha Bidit “O”
15. Binod Bihari Varma Nayanmani
(alias Sri Binod)
16. Gangesa Gunjan Appana Loga
17. Smt. Gauri Mishra Chingi
18. Kunwar Kant Sehanta
19. Rabindranath Thakur Gonu Jha
20. Badri Narayan Das Chandrakala
21. Shaukat Khalil Ekta Ardhanari
22. Nityanand Jha Dharati Jagi Uthal
23. Sushil Gharari
24. Laliteshwar Mallik Dain
25. Raj Kamal (i) Nirmohi Balam Hamar
(ii) Ek Anar, Ek Rogah
26. B. Jha Janam Janam Ham Rup Niharal
Short Stories
Author (or Editor) Name of the Book
1. Rajmohan Jha (i) EkAdi, EkAnta
2. Ramanand Renu (i) Kochot
(ii) Trikon
3. Prabhas Kumar (i) Nav Ghar Uthai, Puran
Choudhary Ghar Khase
(ii) Katha Samgrah
4. Gangesa Gunjan Anhar-Ijot
5. Lalit Pratinidhi
6. Shashikant Sampoorna Swikar
7. Ramesh Narayan Pathar Ka Nao
8. Jivakant (i) Eksari Tharhi Kadam Tar
Re
(ii) Surya Gali Rahal Achi
9. Rajeshwar Jha Dukhia Baba Ka Khatras.
10. Ramanath Mishra Mihir Smriti
11. Rupakant Thakur Moma Ka Nak
12. Ramdeva Jha (i) Ek Khira Tin Phank
(ii) Manu Ka Santan
13. Gouri Mishra Thehial Mon Shital Chahari
14. Harimohan Jha Ekadashi
15. Ramanath Jha (edited) Katha Samgrah
16. Rajkamal Lalka Pag
17. Manmohan Jha Ashrukan
18. B. Jha Pyas
19. Indrakant Jha Abhinna
20. Sudhakant Choudhary Kajar
21. Vidyanath Jha ‘Vidit’ Footal Churi
22. Chandranath Mishra Amar Jalasamadhi
23. Vijaya Chandra Jha Kathasamgrah
24. Sudhakar Chaudhary Kagar
25. Hansraj Satanja
26. P. K. Chaudhary Samadhan
27. Deenanath Jha Gappadhyaya
28. Umanath Jha Rekhachitra
29. Manipadma Sipra
30. Amarnath Choudhary Panch Bund Nor
31. Binod Bihari Varma Balan Ka Bonihar O Pallavi
32. Upendra Doshi Prachodyat
33. B. Jha Lottery
34. Chitralekha Devi Ubiyaet Akhar
35. Amaranath Jha Chahi Ekta Draupadi
36. Dinesh Kumar Jha Hasyakatha
Poetry
Author Name of the work
1. Kirti Narayan Mishra (i) Simant
(ii) Hum stavan Nahi Likhab
2. Ramanand Renu (i) Antatah
(ii) Okre Nam (Elegy)
3. Ganganath Gangesh Asamahi Hamar Hath
and Upendra
4. Mahaprakash Kavita Sambhava
5. Upendra Doshi ‘Vinod’ , Dhuri
Bhimnath and Yugabodh
6. Gangesh Gunjan Ham-Ek Mithya Parichaya
7. Ila Rani Singh Bindanti
8. Nachiketa (i) Kavayo Vadanti
(ii) Amritasya Putrah
9. Bhimnath Jha (i) Tridhara
(ii) Bina
10. Somadeva Kaladhwani
11. Jivakant Nachu He Prithvi
12. Kishun Atmanepad
13. Mayanand Mishra Disantar
14. Udaya Chandra Jha’Vinod’ Samkranti
15. Prafulla Kumar Singh (i) Morang Padavali
Moun (edited) (ii) Tharu Lokegeet
16. Surendra Jha’Suman’ (i) Katha-Yuthika
(ii) Kavi Navatika
(iii) Payaswini
(winner of Akademi
Award)
(iv) Ankavali
(v) Prakritisatak
(vi) Sringarhar
17. Rabindranath Thakur (i) Sita
(ii) Jahina Chi Tahina
(iii) Chalu Chalu Bahina
18. Ramanath Mishra Madhuri
(edited)
19. Indranath Dhoopdipa
20. Kashikant Mishra Madhupa (i) Trikush
(ii) Radha Virah
21. Yatri Patrahin Nagna Gachcha
22. Arsi Prasad Singh (i) Pooja Ka Phool
(ii) Matik Deep
23. (a) Udaya Chandra Kavyasamkalan
Jha’Vinod’
24. Bhavapritanand Padavali
25. Ram Lochan Sharan Ramcharitamanas
(Translated)
26. Lokapati Singh Drohagni
27. Upendra Nath Jha ‘Vyas’ Patan
28. Jainarayan Jha ‘Vineeta’ Pushakarini
29. Ramanji Ek Ankhi Ganga
30. Lakshaman Jha Shantidoota
31. Kedarnath Labh (i) Lakhima Rani
(ii) Bharati
(iii) Asokaputra
32. Prabodh Narayan Singh Hanumanastaka
33. Amarendra Mishra Eklavya
34. Gourikant Choudhary ‘Kant’ Chanan
35. Sri Thakur Singh Das Amrapari
36. Dr. Anima Singh (edited) Maithili Lokegeet,
37. Prabasi Sahityalankar Arunima
38. Ram Kishore Jha Bibhakar (i) Viveka
(ii) Maithil Bibhuti
39. Sitaram Jha Maithili Kavya Khatras
40. Tantranath Jha Namasya
41. Laliteshwari Devi Artanad
42. Dinesh Kumar Jha Saptarshi
43. Lakshman Shastri Dharmaraj Yudhisthir
44. Shashikant Dekhal, Sunal, Bhogal,
45. Vaidyanath Mallik Vidhu—’Sitayana’—It is one of the latest and
recent epics in Maithili which has surpassed almost all the epics
hitherto written in this language in contents and volume. Though it
is not the proper place for a critical evaluation of this epochmaking
epic in Maithili, it must be noted without any fear of contradiction
that Shri Mallik has broken a new ground in the realm of Maithili
poetry and has brought to the fore the life of Sita, an emblem of perfect
and ideal womanhood in all its ramifications. His contribution is
unique in many respects and Sitayana deserves a critical and
sympathetic study at the hands of scholars. It has 49 Sargas, both in
old and new verse.
46. Ram Bharosh Kapari Bhramar—Banna Kothri me Aunaiy at Dhuan.
47. Shyam Bihari Das—Godhuli (Khandakavya)
48. Mantreshwar Jha—Khadi
49. Ramakant Jha—Vyatha (Epic)
50. Raghavacharya—(i) Krantigeeta; (ii) Jwalamukhi; (iii) Madhumati
51. Hetukar Jha—Cetika
Drama
1. Manipadma Kanthahar
2. Gunanath Jha (edits (i) Kaniy-Putra
a Journal Lokamanca (ii) Patheya
exclusively devoted (iii) Madhu Yamini
to the Maithili Stage
3. Mahendra Jha (i) Laksmanarekha
(ii) Khandita
(iii) Juael Kanakani
4. Nachiketa Nayaka Ka Nam Jivan
5. Bindeshwar Mandal Ksamadan
6. Babusaheb Chaudhary Kuhesha; also translated
‘Chanakya’ by D. L. Roy
7. Radhakrishna Chaudhary (i) Nanyadeva Ka Darbar
(ii) Rajyabhisheka
8. Rajnandan Das Shanto
9. Mohan Chaudhary Shantan
10. Janardan Jha Nishkalanka
1.1. Sitaram Choudhary Vematara
12. Kanchinath Jha ‘Kiran’ Vijeta Vidyapati
13. Govinda Jha (i) Raja Shiva Singh
(ii) Basat
14. Harischandra Mishra Kalinga Ka Rajkumari
15. Shyam Bihari Das Dwapar Ka Dwanda
16. D. N. Jha Shrish Purushartha
17. Mahendra (i) Laksmana Rekha Khandita
(ii) Ek Kamal Nirme
Miscellaneous
1. Rajeshwar Jha (i) Maharaj Lakshmishwar
Singh
(ii) Jata-Jatin
(iii) Sama-Chakeva
(iv) Mithilaksara Ka Udhava O
Vikash
(v) Menka
(vi) Vidyapati Ka Sangita me
Varnita Nayaka
Nayikabheda
(vii) Lokgatha vivechana
2. Aparajita Devi Grhyavigyana
3. Parmeshwar Mishra (i) Manabodh O Hunak
Krsnajanma
(ii) Abhinava Jayadev
Vidyapati
4. Maithili Sahitya Vidyapati Punarmulyankan
Samsthan
5. Maithili Sahitya Kaushiki (Collection of articles)
Parishad (Purnea)
6. Smarika (1971) Published by the Chetna Samiti,
Patna
7. Purvanchaliya Bhasa, Do
Sahitya O Sanskriti (1972)
8. Ksemdhari Singh Nibandh Chandrika
9. Raj Kamal Choudhary Gadya Padya Dunu
10. Bharat Jha Bhagwatgita
11. Shankha Pia Kangana
12. Chandranath Mishra Virakanya
18. Bhagyanaragan Jha Manorath
14. Vedanand Jha Vaidik Sangeet
15. Govinda Jha (i) Maithili ka Udhava O Vikas
(ii) Vyakaran Rachna
16. Durganath Jha Shrish Maithili Sahitya Ka Itihas
17. Rajlakshmi (i) Shrimad Bhagwat Prakash
(ii) Bibhisan sarnananna
(iii) Bhayamamata
18. Jagdish Mishra Shastriya Nibandh
19. Kishore Jha Rasaparichaya
20. Indra Kant Jha a (i) Sodh Ratnakar
(ii) Vidyapati Vimarsha
(iii) Likhanawali
21. Hansraj (i) O Je Kahalani
(ii) Jekinese
22. Baldeva Mishra Selected Research Papers
23. Jagdish Chandra Jha Sat Samudra Par
24. Bholanath Jha Maithili Bhasha
25. Chatranand Dokaharak Ankni
26. Radhakrishna Chaudhary (i) Sharantidha
(ii) Mithilka Rajnaitika Itihas
(iii) Mithila Ka Sanskritik Itihas
(ivj Maithili Sahityk
Nibandhawali
(v) Dhammapada (Translated
into Maithili)
(vi) Nanyadeva Ka Darbar
(Drama-published In
Mithila Darshan)
(vii) Rajyabhisheka (Mithila
Mihir)
(viii) Nilgagan Ka Neelkamal
(Mithila Mihir)
27. Prafulla Kumar (i) Nepal me Maithili Sahitya
Ka Itihas
(ii) Brahmagrama
28. Lakshman Shashtri Yudhisthira (Epic)
29. Amritdhari Singh (i) Maithili Jivan Paddhati Ka
Punarnirman
(ii) Yogadarshan
30. (Edited) Vijayasamkha
31. Upendranath Jha (i) Shrimad Bhagwata (translated
into Maithili)
(ii) Omarkhaiyam
32. Kumudnath Mishra Gitagovinda
33. Munishwar Jha (edited) Vidyapati Vangmany; Bhupari Kramana
34. Smarika published by Sarisabpahe Maithili Sahitya Parishad
35. Jayanti Devi Gaya Jatra
36. Jayadhari Singh (i) Baudh Gan me Tantric Siddhant
(ii) Kavya-mimansa
37. Ganganand Vigyanvarta
38. R. N Jha and N. N. Jha Vividh Nibandh
39. Shankar Kumar Jha Kavita Kalap
40. Shailendra Mohan Jha (edited) Chatur Chaturbhuja
41. Ramdeva Jha (edited) Hargowri Vivaha (of Jagagyo-timalla)
42. Loknath Mishra Vyavaharaka Lokegeet
43. Amaresh Pathak Nibandha Samkalan
44. Buddhidhari Singh Ramakar Sharasayya
45. Shri Kapil Prabhakar Khattar Kaka Chinme
46. Arsi Prasad Singh Phool
47. Ram Kishore Jha Bibhakar (ed.)Ram Sanehi Satak
(Bibhakar’s father’s collection)
48. Visnu Kishore Bechan Svatantrotar Maithili Nibandh
49. K. K. Thakur and (edited)—Lalit Nibandh
S. S. Jha Kant
50. Uttam Lal Mandal Ijot
51. Shyam Chandra Jha Udayasta
52. Nityanand Jha Dharti Jagi Uthal
53. Babu Saheb Choudhary Chandragupta
54. Lekhnath Mishra Prabhatiharana (by Jagat
(edited) Prakash Malla)
55. Girindra Mohan Mishra Kichchu Dekhal, Kichchu
Sunal (winner of Akademi
Award)
56. Dhumketu Agbanin
57. Parat-publication details not known
58. Amarnath Jha—Kshanika
59. Kishorenath Jha—Rasaparichaya
60. Durganath Shrish (i) Mahamatsya O Manu
(ii) Kathasara
61. Binod Bihari Varma—Maithila Karan Kayastha Ka Panjika
Sarveksana
62. Ramdeva Jha—Nepalaka Silotkirna Maithili Geet
63. D. N. Jha Shrish—Geet Panchasika
64. Braj Kishore Thakur—Adhyayana O Vivechana
65. Damankant Jha—Gapastaka.
66. Vasukinath Jha (edited)—Maithili Sahitya Ka Ruparekha 2
vols.
67. Hansraj—Sandhan
68. Tantranath Jha—Maithili Lok Katha
69. Chatranand—Dokahar Ka Ankhi
70. Adya Jha—Kathamrta
70. Laliteshwar Jha—Santpariksha (Life of Sahibram Das)
In Austric Halle’s (edited)—Sentences, Patterns and Structures in
Selected Languages of Nepal, there is a chapter on Maithili Sentences’ by
Miss Alice Davis, published by the Tribhuvan University, Nepal—
1973. (I owe this information to the famous Mathili poet, Nachiketa).
— Comprehensive Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the
Maithili Language is being published from Allahabad.
— Ramanath Jha edited and published Kirtilata, Purushpari-ksha
and Manimanjarinataka of Vidyapati.
— The Bihar Government has established a Maithili Akademy at
Patna in May 1976.
— Dr. S. D. Seraheryany (Mosow) has submitted a Thesis on
Vidyapati Thakur assessing his place in the history of Indian
Literature and on the meaning of his Padavali 1974).
Appendix-II
List of Journals and Periodicals
hitherto Published in Maithili
1. Maithili Hit Sadhana (Jaipur—1905)
2. Mithila Moda (Kasi-1905)
(and again in 1937)
3. Mithila Mihir (Darbhanga—1908)
(Patna—1960)
4. Shri Maithili (Laheriasarai—1921),
5. Mithila (Laheriasarai—1924)
6. Maithila Bandhu (Ajmer—1935)
7. Bharati (Laheriasarai—1937)
8. Bibhuti (Muzaffarpur—1937)
9. Sahitya Patra (Darbhanga—1935)
10. Vaidehi (Kasi-1937)
11. Do (Sitamarhi—1949)
12. Do (Darbhanga—1949)
13. Satyasandesha (Kasi—1943)
14. Swadesha (Darbhanga—1948)
15. Maithila Jyoti (Patna—1948)
16. Mithilasevaka (Calcutta—1952)
17. Mithila Darshan (now Maithili Darsana) (Calcutta—1952)
18. Chaupadi (Patna—1953)
20. Mithila (Darbhanga—1952)
21. Pallava (Nehra)
22. Abhivyanjana (Patna, Saharsa)
23. Dainik Swadesha (Darbhanga)
24. Sanjiwani (Laheriasarai)
25. Akhar (Calcutta)
26. Mithilabani (Darbhanga—1968)
27. Mithila Mitra (Sultanganj)
28. Tatka (Jamshedpur)
29. Batuk (Allahabad)
30. Dhiyaputa (Lohna)
31. Sishu (Darbhanga)
32. Ijot (Darbhanga)
33. Janak (Darbhanga)
34. Nirman (Laheriasarai)
35. Matribani (Tharhi)
36. Matribani (Darbhanga)
37. Nutan Vishwa (Laheriasarai)
38. Maithili Samachar (Allahabad)
39. Mithila Amar (Aligarh)
40. Mithila Doot (Kanpur)
41. Mithili Alok (Ferozabad)
42. Sonamatl (Patna)
43. Swadeshvani (Deoghar)
44. Anama (Patna)
45. Sannipata (Patna)
46. Maithili (Biratnagar)
47. Foolpat (Kathmandu)
48. Agnipatra (Calcutta)
49. Maithili Prakash (Calcutta)
50. Mithila Bharati (Patna)
51. Apan Desha (Laheriasarai)
52. Mithila Bhumi (Latheriasari)
53. Mithila Times (Darbhanga)
54. Changur (Saharsa)
55. Sakti Bhumi
56. Maithili Kavita (Calcutta)
57. Ego Rahathi Raja
58. Lai Dhuan (Shivanagar)
59. Bhumhar (Laheriasarai)
60. Shikha (Calcutta)
61. Mahur (Darbhanga)
62. Lokemanch
63. Farak (Patna)
64. Karnamrit (Calcutta)
65. Desil Bayana (Calcutta)
66. Desh kosh (Calcutta)
67. Aarumbha (Patna)
68. Matipani (Patna)
विदेह नूतन अंक भाषापाक रचना-लेखन
इंग्लिश-मैथिली-कोष / मैथिली-इंग्लिश-कोष प्रोजेक्टकेँ आगू बढ़ाऊ, अपन सुझाव आ योगदान ई-मेल द्वारा ggajendra@videha.com पर पठाऊ।
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१.भारत आ नेपालक मैथिली भाषा-वैज्ञानिक लोकनि द्वारा बनाओल मानक शैली आ २.मैथिलीमे भाषा सम्पादन पाठ्यक्रम
१.नेपाल आ भारतक मैथिली भाषा-वैज्ञानिक लोकनि द्वारा बनाओल मानक शैली
१.१. नेपालक मैथिली भाषा वैज्ञानिक लोकनि द्वारा बनाओल मानक उच्चारण आ लेखन शैली
(भाषाशास्त्री डा. रामावतार यादवक धारणाकेँ पूर्ण रूपसँ सङ्ग लऽ निर्धारित)
मैथिलीमे उच्चारण तथा लेखन
१.पञ्चमाक्षर आ अनुस्वार: पञ्चमाक्षरान्तर्गत ङ, ञ, ण, न एवं म अबैत अछि। संस्कृत भाषाक अनुसार शब्दक अन्तमे जाहि वर्गक अक्षर रहैत अछि ओही वर्गक पञ्चमाक्षर अबैत अछि। जेना-
अङ्क (क वर्गक रहबाक कारणे अन्तमे ङ् आएल अछि।)
पञ्च (च वर्गक रहबाक कारणे अन्तमे ञ् आएल अछि।)
खण्ड (ट वर्गक रहबाक कारणे अन्तमे ण् आएल अछि।)
सन्धि (त वर्गक रहबाक कारणे अन्तमे न् आएल अछि।)
खम्भ (प वर्गक रहबाक कारणे अन्तमे म् आएल अछि।)
उपर्युक्त बात मैथिलीमे कम देखल जाइत अछि। पञ्चमाक्षरक बदलामे अधिकांश जगहपर अनुस्वारक प्रयोग देखल जाइछ। जेना- अंक, पंच, खंड, संधि, खंभ आदि। व्याकरणविद पण्डित गोविन्द झाक कहब छनि जे कवर्ग, चवर्ग आ टवर्गसँ पूर्व अनुस्वार लिखल जाए तथा तवर्ग आ पवर्गसँ पूर्व पञ्चमाक्षरे लिखल जाए। जेना- अंक, चंचल, अंडा, अन्त तथा कम्पन। मुदा हिन्दीक निकट रहल आधुनिक लेखक एहि बातकेँ नहि मानैत छथि। ओ लोकनि अन्त आ कम्पनक जगहपर सेहो अंत आ कंपन लिखैत देखल जाइत छथि।
नवीन पद्धति किछु सुविधाजनक अवश्य छैक। किएक तँ एहिमे समय आ स्थानक बचत होइत छैक। मुदा कतोक बेर हस्तलेखन वा मुद्रणमे अनुस्वारक छोट सन बिन्दु स्पष्ट नहि भेलासँ अर्थक अनर्थ होइत सेहो देखल जाइत अछि। अनुस्वारक प्रयोगमे उच्चारण-दोषक सम्भावना सेहो ततबए देखल जाइत अछि। एतदर्थ कसँ लऽ कऽ पवर्ग धरि पञ्चमाक्षरेक प्रयोग करब उचित अछि। यसँ लऽ कऽ ज्ञ धरिक अक्षरक सङ्ग अनुस्वारक प्रयोग करबामे कतहु कोनो विवाद नहि देखल जाइछ।
२.ढ आ ढ : ढक उच्चारण “र् ह”जकाँ होइत अछि। अतः जतऽ “र् ह”क उच्चारण हो ओतऽ मात्र ढ लिखल जाए। आन ठाम खाली ढ लिखल जएबाक चाही। जेना-
ढ = ढाकी, ढेकी, ढीठ, ढेउआ, ढङ्ग, ढेरी, ढाकनि, ढाठ आदि।
ढ = पढ़ाइ, बढब, गढब, मढब, बुढबा, साँढ, गाढ, रीढ, चाँढ, सीढी, पीढी आदि।
उपर्युक्त शब्द सभकेँ देखलासँ ई स्पष्ट होइत अछि जे साधारणतया शब्दक शुरूमे ढ आ मध्य तथा अन्तमे ढ अबैत अछि। इएह नियम ड आ डक सन्दर्भ सेहो लागू होइत अछि।
३.व आ ब : मैथिलीमे “व”क उच्चारण ब कएल जाइत अछि, मुदा ओकरा ब रूपमे नहि लिखल जएबाक चाही। जेना- उच्चारण : बैद्यनाथ, बिद्या, नब, देबता, बिष्णु, बंश, बन्दना आदि। एहि सभक स्थानपर क्रमशः वैद्यनाथ, विद्या, नव, देवता, विष्णु, वंश, वन्दना लिखबाक चाही। सामान्यतया व उच्चारणक लेल ओ प्रयोग कएल जाइत अछि। जेना- ओकील, ओजह आदि।
४.य आ ज : कतहु-कतहु “य”क उच्चारण “ज”जकाँ करैत देखल जाइत अछि, मुदा ओकरा ज नहि लिखबाक चाही। उच्चारणमे यज्ञ, जदि, जमुना, जुग, जाबत, जोगी, जदु, जम आदि कहल जाएबला शब्द सभकेँ क्रमशः यज्ञ, यदि, यमुना, युग, यावत, योगी, यदु, यम लिखबाक चाही।
५.ए आ य : मैथिलीक वर्तनीमे ए आ य दुनू लिखल जाइत अछि।
प्राचीन वर्तनी- कएल, जाए, होएत, माए, भाए, गाए आदि।
नवीन वर्तनी- कयल, जाय, होयत, माय, भाय, गाय आदि।
सामान्यतया शब्दक शुरूमे ए मात्र अबैत अछि। जेना एहि, एना, एकर, एहन आदि। एहि शब्द सभक स्थानपर यहि, यना, यकर, यहन आदिक प्रयोग नहि करबाक चाही। यद्यपि मैथिलीभाषी थारू सहित किछु जातिमे शब्दक आरम्भोमे “ए”केँ य कहि उच्चारण कएल जाइत अछि।
ए आ “य”क प्रयोगक सन्दर्भमे प्राचीने पद्धतिक अनुसरण करब उपयुक्त मानि एहि पुस्तकमे ओकरे प्रयोग कएल गेल अछि। किएक तँ दुनूक लेखनमे कोनो सहजता आ दुरूहताक बात नहि अछि। आ मैथिलीक सर्वसाधारणक उच्चारण-शैली यक अपेक्षा एसँ बेसी निकट छैक। खास कऽ कएल, हएब आदि कतिपय शब्दकेँ कैल, हैब आदि रूपमे कतहु-कतहु लिखल जाएब सेहो “ए”क प्रयोगकेँ बेसी समीचीन प्रमाणित करैत अछि।
६.हि, हु तथा एकार, ओकार : मैथिलीक प्राचीन लेखन-परम्परामे कोनो बातपर बल दैत काल शब्दक पाछाँ हि, हु लगाओल जाइत छैक। जेना- हुनकहि, अपनहु, ओकरहु, तत्कालहि, चोट्टहि, आनहु आदि। मुदा आधुनिक लेखनमे हिक स्थानपर एकार एवं हुक स्थानपर ओकारक प्रयोग करैत देखल जाइत अछि। जेना- हुनके, अपनो, तत्काले, चोट्टे, आनो आदि।
७.ष तथा ख : मैथिली भाषामे अधिकांशतः षक उच्चारण ख होइत अछि। जेना- षड्यन्त्र (खडयन्त्र), षोडशी (खोडशी), षट्कोण (खटकोण), वृषेश (वृखेश), सन्तोष (सन्तोख) आदि।
८.ध्वनि-लोप : निम्नलिखित अवस्थामे शब्दसँ ध्वनि-लोप भऽ जाइत अछि:
(क) क्रियान्वयी प्रत्यय अयमे य वा ए लुप्त भऽ जाइत अछि। ओहिमे सँ पहिने अक उच्चारण दीर्घ भऽ जाइत अछि। ओकर आगाँ लोप-सूचक चिह्न वा विकारी (’ / ऽ) लगाओल जाइछ। जेना-
पूर्ण रूप : पढए (पढय) गेलाह, कए (कय) लेल, उठए (उठय) पडतौक।
अपूर्ण रूप : पढ’ गेलाह, क’ लेल, उठ’ पडतौक।
पढऽ गेलाह, कऽ लेल, उठऽ पडतौक।
(ख) पूर्वकालिक कृत आय (आए) प्रत्ययमे य (ए) लुप्त भऽ जाइछ, मुदा लोप-सूचक विकारी नहि लगाओल जाइछ। जेना-
पूर्ण रूप : खाए (य) गेल, पठाय (ए) देब, नहाए (य) अएलाह।
अपूर्ण रूप : खा गेल, पठा देब, नहा अएलाह।
(ग) स्त्री प्रत्यय इक उच्चारण क्रियापद, संज्ञा, ओ विशेषण तीनूमे लुप्त भऽ जाइत अछि। जेना-
पूर्ण रूप : दोसरि मालिनि चलि गेलि।
अपूर्ण रूप : दोसर मालिन चलि गेल।
(घ) वर्तमान कृदन्तक अन्तिम त लुप्त भऽ जाइत अछि। जेना-
पूर्ण रूप : पढैत अछि, बजैत अछि, गबैत अछि।
अपूर्ण रूप : पढै अछि, बजै अछि, गबै अछि।
(ङ) क्रियापदक अवसान इक, उक, ऐक तथा हीकमे लुप्त भऽ जाइत अछि। जेना-
पूर्ण रूप: छियौक, छियैक, छहीक, छौक, छैक, अबितैक, होइक।
अपूर्ण रूप : छियौ, छियै, छही, छौ, छै, अबितै, होइ।
(च) क्रियापदीय प्रत्यय न्ह, हु तथा हकारक लोप भऽ जाइछ। जेना-
पूर्ण रूप : छन्हि, कहलन्हि, कहलहुँ, गेलह, नहि।
अपूर्ण रूप : छनि, कहलनि, कहलौँ, गेलऽ, नइ, नञि, नै।
९.ध्वनि स्थानान्तरण : कोनो-कोनो स्वर-ध्वनि अपना जगहसँ हटि कऽ दोसर ठाम चलि जाइत अछि। खास कऽ ह्रस्व इ आ उक सम्बन्धमे ई बात लागू होइत अछि। मैथिलीकरण भऽ गेल शब्दक मध्य वा अन्तमे जँ ह्रस्व इ वा उ आबए तँ ओकर ध्वनि स्थानान्तरित भऽ एक अक्षर आगाँ आबि जाइत अछि। जेना- शनि (शइन), पानि (पाइन), दालि ( दाइल), माटि (माइट), काछु (काउछ), मासु (माउस) आदि। मुदा तत्सम शब्द सभमे ई निअम लागू नहि होइत अछि। जेना- रश्मिकेँ रइश्म आ सुधांशुकेँ सुधाउंस नहि कहल जा सकैत अछि।
१०.हलन्त(्)क प्रयोग : मैथिली भाषामे सामान्यतया हलन्त (्)क आवश्यकता नहि होइत अछि। कारण जे शब्दक अन्तमे अ उच्चारण नहि होइत अछि। मुदा संस्कृत भाषासँ जहिनाक तहिना मैथिलीमे आएल (तत्सम) शब्द सभमे हलन्त प्रयोग कएल जाइत अछि। एहि पोथीमे सामान्यतया सम्पूर्ण शब्दकेँ मैथिली भाषा सम्बन्धी निअम अनुसार हलन्तविहीन राखल गेल अछि। मुदा व्याकरण सम्बन्धी प्रयोजनक लेल अत्यावश्यक स्थानपर कतहु-कतहु हलन्त देल गेल अछि। प्रस्तुत पोथीमे मथिली लेखनक प्राचीन आ नवीन दुनू शैलीक सरल आ समीचीन पक्ष सभकेँ समेटि कऽ वर्ण-विन्यास कएल गेल अछि। स्थान आ समयमे बचतक सङ्गहि हस्त-लेखन तथा तकनीकी दृष्टिसँ सेहो सरल होबऽबला हिसाबसँ वर्ण-विन्यास मिलाओल गेल अछि। वर्तमान समयमे मैथिली मातृभाषी पर्यन्तकेँ आन भाषाक माध्यमसँ मैथिलीक ज्ञान लेबऽ पडि रहल परिप्रेक्ष्यमे लेखनमे सहजता तथा एकरूपतापर ध्यान देल गेल अछि। तखन मैथिली भाषाक मूल विशेषता सभ कुण्ठित नहि होइक, ताहू दिस लेखक-मण्डल सचेत अछि। प्रसिद्ध भाषाशास्त्री डा. रामावतार यादवक कहब छनि जे सरलताक अनुसन्धानमे एहन अवस्था किन्नहु ने आबऽ देबाक चाही जे भाषाक विशेषता छाँहमे पडि जाए।
-(भाषाशास्त्री डा. रामावतार यादवक धारणाकेँ पूर्ण रूपसँ सङ्ग लऽ निर्धारित)
१.२. मैथिली अकादमी, पटना द्वारा निर्धारित मैथिली लेखन-शैली
१. जे शब्द मैथिली-साहित्यक प्राचीन कालसँ आइ धरि जाहि वर्त्तनीमे प्रचलित अछि, से सामान्यतः ताहि वर्त्तनीमे लिखल जाय- उदाहरणार्थ-
ग्राह्य
एखन
ठाम
जकर, तकर
तनिकर
अछि
अग्राह्य
अखन, अखनि, एखेन, अखनी
ठिमा, ठिना, ठमा
जेकर, तेकर
तिनकर। (वैकल्पिक रूपेँ ग्राह्य)
ऐछ, अहि, ए।
२. निम्नलिखित तीन प्रकारक रूप वैकल्पिकतया अपनाओल जाय: भऽ गेल, भय गेल वा भए गेल। जा रहल अछि, जाय रहल अछि, जाए रहल अछि। कर’ गेलाह, वा करय गेलाह वा करए गेलाह।
३. प्राचीन मैथिलीक ‘न्ह’ ध्वनिक स्थानमे ‘न’ लिखल जाय सकैत अछि यथा कहलनि वा कहलन्हि।
४. ‘ऐ’ तथा ‘औ’ ततय लिखल जाय जत’ स्पष्टतः ‘अइ’ तथा ‘अउ’ सदृश उच्चारण इष्ट हो। यथा- देखैत, छलैक, बौआ, छौक इत्यादि।
५. मैथिलीक निम्नलिखित शब्द एहि रूपे प्रयुक्त होयत: जैह, सैह, इएह, ओऐह, लैह तथा दैह।
६. ह्र्स्व इकारांत शब्दमे ‘इ’ के लुप्त करब सामान्यतः अग्राह्य थिक। यथा- ग्राह्य देखि आबह, मालिनि गेलि (मनुष्य मात्रमे)।
७. स्वतंत्र ह्रस्व ‘ए’ वा ‘य’ प्राचीन मैथिलीक उद्धरण आदिमे तँ यथावत राखल जाय, किंतु आधुनिक प्रयोगमे वैकल्पिक रूपेँ ‘ए’ वा ‘य’ लिखल जाय। यथा:- कयल वा कएल, अयलाह वा अएलाह, जाय वा जाए इत्यादि।
८. उच्चारणमे दू स्वरक बीच जे ‘य’ ध्वनि स्वतः आबि जाइत अछि तकरा लेखमे स्थान वैकल्पिक रूपेँ देल जाय। यथा- धीआ, अढैआ, विआह, वा धीया, अढैया, बियाह।
९. सानुनासिक स्वतंत्र स्वरक स्थान यथासंभव ‘ञ’ लिखल जाय वा सानुनासिक स्वर। यथा:- मैञा, कनिञा, किरतनिञा वा मैआँ, कनिआँ, किरतनिआँ।
१०. कारकक विभक्त्तिक निम्नलिखित रूप ग्राह्य:- हाथकेँ, हाथसँ, हाथेँ, हाथक, हाथमे। ’मे’ मे अनुस्वार सर्वथा त्याज्य थिक। ‘क’ क वैकल्पिक रूप ‘केर’ राखल जा सकैत अछि।
११. पूर्वकालिक क्रियापदक बाद ‘कय’ वा ‘कए’ अव्यय वैकल्पिक रूपेँ लगाओल जा सकैत अछि। यथा:- देखि कय वा देखि कए।
१२. माँग, भाँग आदिक स्थानमे माङ, भाङ इत्यादि लिखल जाय।
१३. अर्द्ध ‘न’ ओ अर्द्ध ‘म’ क बदला अनुसार नहि लिखल जाय, किंतु छापाक सुविधार्थ अर्द्ध ‘ङ’ , ‘ञ’, तथा ‘ण’ क बदला अनुस्वारो लिखल जा सकैत अछि। यथा:- अङ्क, वा अंक, अञ्चल वा अंचल, कण्ठ वा कंठ।
१४. हलंत चिह्न निअमतः लगाओल जाय, किंतु विभक्तिक संग अकारांत प्रयोग कएल जाय। यथा:- श्रीमान्, किंतु श्रीमानक।
१५. सभ एकल कारक चिह्न शब्दमे सटा क’ लिखल जाय, हटा क’ नहि, संयुक्त विभक्तिक हेतु फराक लिखल जाय, यथा घर परक।
१६. अनुनासिककेँ चन्द्रबिन्दु द्वारा व्यक्त कयल जाय। परंतु मुद्रणक सुविधार्थ हि समान जटिल मात्रापर अनुस्वारक प्रयोग चन्द्रबिन्दुक बदला कयल जा सकैत अछि। यथा- हिँ केर बदला हिं।
१७. पूर्ण विराम पासीसँ ( । ) सूचित कयल जाय।
१८. समस्त पद सटा क’ लिखल जाय, वा हाइफेनसँ जोडि क’ , हटा क’ नहि।
१९. लिअ तथा दिअ शब्दमे बिकारी (ऽ) नहि लगाओल जाय।
२०. अंक देवनागरी रूपमे राखल जाय।
२१.किछु ध्वनिक लेल नवीन चिन्ह बनबाओल जाय। जा' ई नहि बनल अछि ताबत एहि दुनू ध्वनिक बदला पूर्ववत् अय/ आय/ अए/ आए/ आओ/ अओ लिखल जाय। आकि ऎ वा ऒ सँ व्यक्त कएल जाय।
ह./- गोविन्द झा ११/८/७६ श्रीकान्त ठाकुर ११/८/७६ सुरेन्द्र झा "सुमन" ११/०८/७६
२. मैथिलीमे भाषा सम्पादन पाठ्यक्रम
२.१. उच्चारण निर्देश: (बोल्ड कएल रूप ग्राह्य):-
दन्त न क उच्चारणमे दाँतमे जीह सटत- जेना बाजू नाम , मुदा ण क उच्चारणमे जीह मूर्धामे सटत (नै सटैए तँ उच्चारण दोष अछि)- जेना बाजू गणेश। तालव्य शमे जीह तालुसँ , षमे मूर्धासँ आ दन्त समे दाँतसँ सटत। निशाँ, सभ आ शोषण बाजि कऽ देखू। मैथिलीमे ष केँ वैदिक संस्कृत जकाँ ख सेहो उच्चरित कएल जाइत अछि, जेना वर्षा, दोष। य अनेको स्थानपर ज जकाँ उच्चरित होइत अछि आ ण ड जकाँ (यथा संयोग आ गणेश संजोग आ
गड़ेस उच्चरित होइत अछि)। मैथिलीमे व क उच्चारण ब, श क उच्चारण स आ य क उच्चारण ज सेहो होइत अछि।
ओहिना ह्रस्व इ बेशीकाल मैथिलीमे पहिने बाजल जाइत अछि कारण देवनागरीमे आ मिथिलाक्षरमे ह्रस्व इ अक्षरक पहिने लिखलो जाइत आ बाजलो जएबाक चाही। कारण जे हिन्दीमे एकर दोषपूर्ण उच्चारण होइत अछि (लिखल तँ पहिने जाइत अछि मुदा बाजल बादमे जाइत अछि), से शिक्षा पद्धतिक दोषक कारण हम सभ ओकर उच्चारण दोषपूर्ण ढंगसँ कऽ रहल छी।
अछि- अ इ छ ऐछ (उच्चारण)
छथि- छ इ थ – छैथ (उच्चारण)
पहुँचि- प हुँ इ च (उच्चारण)
आब अ आ इ ई ए ऐ ओ औ अं अः ऋ ऐ सभ लेल मात्रा सेहो अछि, मुदा ऐमे ई ऐ ओ औ अं अः ऋ केँ संयुक्ताक्षर रूपमे गलत रूपमे प्रयुक्त आ उच्चरित कएल जाइत अछि। जेना ऋ केँ री रूपमे उच्चरित करब। आ देखियौ- ऐ लेल देखिऔ क प्रयोग अनुचित। मुदा देखिऐ लेल देखियै अनुचित। क् सँ ह् धरि अ सम्मिलित भेलासँ क सँ ह बनैत अछि, मुदा उच्चारण काल हलन्त युक्त शब्दक अन्तक उच्चारणक प्रवृत्ति बढल अछि, मुदा हम जखन मनोजमे ज् अन्तमे बजैत छी, तखनो पुरनका लोककेँ बजैत सुनबन्हि- मनोजऽ, वास्तवमे ओ अ युक्त ज् = ज बजै छथि।
फेर ज्ञ अछि ज् आ ञ क संयुक्त मुदा गलत उच्चारण होइत अछि- ग्य। ओहिना क्ष अछि क् आ ष क संयुक्त मुदा उच्चारण होइत अछि छ। फेर श् आ र क संयुक्त अछि श्र ( जेना श्रमिक) आ स् आ र क संयुक्त अछि स्र (जेना मिस्र)। त्र भेल त+र ।
उच्चारणक ऑडियो फाइल विदेह आर्काइव http://www.videha.co.in/ पर उपलब्ध अछि। फेर केँ / सँ / पर पूर्व अक्षरसँ सटा कऽ लिखू मुदा तँ / कऽ हटा कऽ। ऐमे सँ मे पहिल सटा कऽ लिखू आ बादबला हटा कऽ। अंकक बाद टा लिखू सटा कऽ मुदा अन्य ठाम टा लिखू हटा कऽ– जेना
छहटा मुदा सभ टा। फेर ६अ म सातम लिखू- छठम सातम नै। घरबलामे बला मुदा घरवालीमे वाली प्रयुक्त करू।
रहए-
रहै मुदा सकैए (उच्चारण सकै-ए)।
मुदा कखनो काल रहए आ रहै मे अर्थ भिन्नता सेहो, जेना से कम्मो जगहमे पार्किंग करबाक अभ्यास रहै ओकरा। पुछलापर पता लागल जे ढुनढुन नाम्ना ई ड्राइवर कनाट प्लेसक पार्किंगमे काज करैत रहए।
छलै, छलए मे सेहो ऐ तरहक भेल। छलए क उच्चारण छल-ए सेहो।
संयोगने- (उच्चारण संजोगने)
केँ/ कऽ
केर- क (
केर क प्रयोग गद्यमे नै करू , पद्यमे कऽ सकै छी। )
क (जेना रामक)
–रामक आ संगे (उच्चारण राम के / राम कऽ सेहो)
सँ- सऽ (उच्चारण)
चन्द्रबिन्दु आ अनुस्वार- अनुस्वारमे कंठ धरिक प्रयोग होइत अछि मुदा चन्द्रबिन्दुमे नै। चन्द्रबिन्दुमे कनेक एकारक सेहो उच्चारण होइत अछि- जेना रामसँ- (उच्चारण राम सऽ) रामकेँ- (उच्चारण राम कऽ/ राम के सेहो)।
केँ जेना रामकेँ भेल हिन्दीक को (राम को)- राम को= रामकेँ
क जेना रामक भेल हिन्दीक का ( राम का) राम का= रामक
कऽ जेना जा कऽ भेल हिन्दीक कर ( जा कर) जा कर= जा कऽ
सँ भेल हिन्दीक से (राम से) राम से= रामसँ
सऽ , तऽ , त , केर (गद्यमे) एे चारू शब्द सबहक प्रयोग अवांछित।
के दोसर अर्थेँ प्रयुक्त भऽ सकैए- जेना, के कहलक? विभक्ति “क”क बदला एकर प्रयोग अवांछित।
नञि, नहि, नै, नइ, नँइ, नइँ, नइं ऐ सभक उच्चारण आ लेखन - नै
त्त्व क बदलामे त्व जेना महत्वपूर्ण (महत्त्वपूर्ण नै) जतए अर्थ बदलि जाए ओतहि मात्र तीन अक्षरक संयुक्ताक्षरक प्रयोग उचित। सम्पति- उच्चारण स म्प इ त (सम्पत्ति नै- कारण सही उच्चारण आसानीसँ सम्भव नै)। मुदा सर्वोत्तम (सर्वोतम नै)।
राष्ट्रिय (राष्ट्रीय नै)
सकैए/ सकै (अर्थ परिवर्तन)
पोछैले/ पोछै लेल/ पोछए लेल
पोछैए/ पोछए/ (अर्थ परिवर्तन) पोछए/ पोछै
ओ लोकनि ( हटा कऽ, ओ मे बिकारी नै)
ओइ/ ओहि
ओहिले/
ओहि लेल/ ओही लऽ
जएबेँ/ बैसबेँ
पँचभइयाँ
देखियौक/ (देखिऔक नै- तहिना अ मे ह्रस्व आ दीर्घक मात्राक प्रयोग अनुचित)
जकाँ / जेकाँ
तँइ/ तैँ/
होएत / हएत
नञि/ नहि/ नँइ/ नइँ/ नै
सौँसे/ सौंसे
बड /
बडी (झोराओल)
गाए (गाइ नहि), मुदा गाइक दूध (गाएक दूध नै।)
रहलेँ/ पहिरतैँ
हमहीं/ अहीं
सब - सभ
सबहक - सभहक
धरि - तक
गप- बात
बूझब - समझब
बुझलौं/ समझलौं/ बुझलहुँ - समझलहुँ
हमरा आर - हम सभ
आकि- आ कि
सकैछ/ करैछ (गद्यमे प्रयोगक आवश्यकता नै)
होइन/ होनि
जाइन (जानि नै, जेना देल जाइन) मुदा जानि-बूझि (अर्थ परिव्र्तन)
पइठ/ जाइठ
आउ/ जाउ/ आऊ/ जाऊ
मे, केँ, सँ, पर (शब्दसँ सटा कऽ) तँ कऽ धऽ दऽ (शब्दसँ हटा कऽ) मुदा दूटा वा बेसी विभक्ति संग रहलापर पहिल विभक्ति टाकेँ सटाऊ। जेना ऐमे सँ ।
एकटा , दूटा (मुदा कए टा)
बिकारीक प्रयोग शब्दक अन्तमे, बीचमे अनावश्यक रूपेँ नै। आकारान्त आ अन्तमे अ क बाद बिकारीक प्रयोग नै (जेना दिअ
, आ/ दिय’ , आ’, आ नै )
अपोस्ट्रोफीक प्रयोग बिकारीक बदलामे करब अनुचित आ मात्र फॉन्टक तकनीकी न्यूनताक परिचायक)- ओना बिकारीक संस्कृत रूप ऽ अवग्रह कहल जाइत अछि आ वर्तनी आ उच्चारण दुनू ठाम एकर लोप रहैत अछि/ रहि सकैत अछि (उच्चारणमे लोप रहिते अछि)। मुदा अपोस्ट्रोफी सेहो अंग्रेजीमे पसेसिव केसमे होइत अछि आ फ्रेंचमे शब्दमे जतए एकर प्रयोग होइत अछि जेना raison d’etre एतए सेहो एकर उच्चारण रैजौन डेटर होइत अछि, माने अपोस्ट्रॉफी अवकाश नै दैत अछि वरन जोडैत अछि, से एकर प्रयोग बिकारीक बदला देनाइ तकनीकी रूपेँ सेहो अनुचित)।
अइमे, एहिमे/ ऐमे
जइमे, जाहिमे
एखन/ अखन/ अइखन
केँ (के नहि) मे (अनुस्वार रहित)
भऽ
मे
दऽ
तँ (तऽ, त नै)
सँ ( सऽ स नै)
गाछ तर
गाछ लग
साँझ खन
जो (जो go, करै जो do)
तै/तइ जेना- तै दुआरे/ तइमे/ तइले
जै/जइ जेना- जै कारण/ जइसँ/ जइले
ऐ/अइ जेना- ऐ कारण/ ऐसँ/ अइले/ मुदा एकर एकटा खास प्रयोग- लालति कतेक दिनसँ कहैत रहैत अइ
लै/लइ जेना लैसँ/ लइले/ लै दुआरे
लहँ/ लौं
गेलौं/ लेलौं/ लेलँह/ गेलहुँ/ लेलहुँ/ लेलँ
जइ/ जाहि/ जै
जहिठाम/ जाहिठाम/ जइठाम/ जैठाम
एहि/ अहि/
अइ (वाक्यक अंतमे ग्राह्य) / ऐ
अइछ/ अछि/ ऐछ
तइ/ तहि/ तै/ ताहि
ओहि/ ओइ
सीखि/ सीख
जीवि/ जीवी/ जीब
भलेहीं/ भलहिं
तैं/ तँइ/ तँए
जाएब/ जएब
लइ/ लै
छइ/ छै
नहि/ नै/ नइ
गइ/ गै
छनि/ छन्हि ...
समए शब्दक संग जखन कोनो विभक्ति जुटै छै तखन समै जना समैपर इत्यादि। असगरमे हृदए आ विभक्ति जुटने हृदे जना हृदेसँ, हृदेमे इत्यादि।
जइ/ जाहि/
जै
जहिठाम/ जाहिठाम/ जइठाम/ जैठाम
एहि/ अहि/ अइ/ ऐ
अइछ/ अछि/ ऐछ
तइ/ तहि/ तै/ ताहि
ओहि/ ओइ
सीखि/ सीख
जीवि/ जीवी/
जीब
भले/ भलेहीं/
भलहिं
तैं/ तँइ/ तँए
जाएब/ जएब
लइ/ लै
छइ/ छै
नहि/ नै/ नइ
गइ/
गै
छनि/ छन्हि
चुकल अछि/ गेल गछि
२.२. मैथिलीमे भाषा सम्पादन पाठ्यक्रम
नीचाँक सूचीमे देल विकल्पमेसँ लैंगुएज एडीटर द्वारा कोन रूप चुनल जेबाक चाही:
बोल्ड कएल रूप ग्राह्य:
१.होयबला/ होबयबला/ होमयबला/ हेब’बला, हेम’बला/ होयबाक/होबएबला /होएबाक
२. आ’/आऽ
आ
३. क’ लेने/कऽ लेने/कए लेने/कय लेने/ल’/लऽ/लय/लए
४. भ’ गेल/भऽ गेल/भय गेल/भए
गेल
५. कर’ गेलाह/करऽ
गेलह/करए गेलाह/करय गेलाह
६.
लिअ/दिअ लिय’,दिय’,लिअ’,दिय’/
७. कर’ बला/करऽ बला/ करय बला करैबला/क’र’ बला /
करैवाली
८. बला वला (पुरूष), वाली (स्त्री) ९
.
आङ्ल आंग्ल
१०. प्रायः प्रायह
११. दुःख दुख १
२. चलि गेल चल गेल/चैल गेल
१३. देलखिन्ह देलकिन्ह, देलखिन
१४.
देखलन्हि देखलनि/ देखलैन्ह
१५. छथिन्ह/ छलन्हि छथिन/ छलैन/ छलनि
१६. चलैत/दैत चलति/दैति
१७. एखनो
अखनो
१८.
बढ़नि बढइन बढन्हि
१९. ओ’/ओऽ(सर्वनाम) ओ
२०
. ओ (संयोजक) ओ’/ओऽ
२१. फाँगि/फाङ्गि फाइंग/फाइङ
२२.
जे जे’/जेऽ २३. ना-नुकुर ना-नुकर
२४. केलन्हि/केलनि/कयलन्हि
२५. तखनतँ/ तखन तँ
२६. जा
रहल/जाय रहल/जाए रहल
२७. निकलय/निकलए
लागल/ लगल बहराय/ बहराए लागल/ लगल निकल’/बहरै लागल
२८. ओतय/ जतय जत’/ ओत’/ जतए/ ओतए
२९.
की फूरल जे कि फूरल जे
३०. जे जे’/जेऽ
३१. कूदि / यादि(मोन पारब) कूइद/याइद/कूद/याद/
यादि (मोन)
३२. इहो/ ओहो
३३.
हँसए/ हँसय हँसऽ
३४. नौ आकि दस/नौ किंवा दस/ नौ वा दस
३५. सासु-ससुर सास-ससुर
३६. छह/ सात छ/छः/सात
३७.
की की’/ कीऽ (दीर्घीकारान्तमे ऽ वर्जित)
३८. जबाब जवाब
३९. करएताह/ करेताह करयताह
४०. दलान दिशि दलान दिश/दलान दिस
४१
. गेलाह गएलाह/गयलाह
४२. किछु आर/ किछु और/ किछ आर
४३. जाइ छल/ जाइत छल जाति छल/जैत छल
४४. पहुँचि/ भेट जाइत छल/ भेट जाइ छलए पहुँच/ भेटि जाइत छल
४५.
जबान (युवा)/ जवान(फौजी)
४६. लय/ लए क’/ कऽ/ लए कए / लऽ कऽ/ लऽ कए
४७. ल’/लऽ कय/
कए
४८. एखन / एखने / अखन / अखने
४९.
अहींकेँ अहीँकेँ
५०. गहींर गहीँर
५१.
धार पार केनाइ धार पार केनाय/केनाए
५२. जेकाँ जेँकाँ/
जकाँ
५३. तहिना तेहिना
५४. एकर अकर
५५. बहिनउ बहनोइ
५६. बहिन बहिनि
५७. बहिन-बहिनोइ
बहिन-बहनउ
५८. नहि/ नै
५९. करबा / करबाय/ करबाए
६०. तँ/ त ऽ तय/तए
६१. भैयारी मे छोट-भाए/भै/, जेठ-भाय/भाइ,
६२. गिनतीमे दू भाइ/भाए/भाँइ
६३. ई पोथी दू भाइक/ भाँइ/ भाए/ लेल। यावत जावत
६४. माय मै / माए मुदा माइक ममता
६५. देन्हि/ दइन दनि/ दएन्हि/ दयन्हि दन्हि/ दैन्हि
६६. द’/ दऽ/ दए
६७. ओ (संयोजक) ओऽ (सर्वनाम)
६८. तका कए तकाय तकाए
६९. पैरे (on foot) पएरे कएक/ कैक
७०.
ताहुमे/ ताहूमे
७१.
पुत्रीक
७२.
बजा कय/ कए / कऽ
७३. बननाय/बननाइ
७४. कोला
७५.
दिनुका दिनका
७६.
ततहिसँ
७७. गरबओलन्हि/ गरबौलनि/
गरबेलन्हि/ गरबेलनि
७८. बालु बालू
७९.
चेन्ह चिन्ह(अशुद्ध)
८०. जे जे’
८१
. से/ के से’/के’
८२. एखुनका अखनुका
८३. भुमिहार भूमिहार
८४. सुग्गर
/ सुगरक/ सूगर
८५. झठहाक झटहाक ८६.
छूबि
८७. करइयो/ओ करैयो ने देलक /करियौ-करइयौ
८८. पुबारि
पुबाइ
८९. झगड़ा-झाँटी
झगड़ा-झाँटि
९०. पएरे-पएरे पैरे-पैरे
९१. खेलएबाक
९२. खेलेबाक
९३. लगा
९४. होए- हो – होअए
९५. बुझल बूझल
९६.
बूझल (संबोधन अर्थमे)
९७. यैह यएह / इएह/ सैह/ सएह
९८. तातिल
९९. अयनाय- अयनाइ/ अएनाइ/ एनाइ
१००. निन्न- निन्द
१०१.
बिनु बिन
१०२. जाए जाइ
१०३.
जाइ (in different sense)-last word of sentence
१०४. छत पर आबि जाइ
१०५.
ने
१०६. खेलाए (play) –खेलाइ
१०७. शिकाइत- शिकायत
१०८.
ढप- ढ़प
१०९
. पढ़- पढ
११०. कनिए/ कनिये कनिञे
१११. राकस- राकश
११२. होए/ होय होइ
११३. अउरदा-
औरदा
११४. बुझेलन्हि (different meaning- got understand)
११५. बुझएलन्हि/बुझेलनि/ बुझयलन्हि (understood himself)
११६. चलि- चल/ चलि गेल
११७. खधाइ- खधाय
११८.
मोन पाड़लखिन्ह/ मोन पाड़लखिन/ मोन पारलखिन्ह
११९. कैक- कएक- कइएक
१२०.
लग ल’ग
१२१. जरेनाइ
१२२. जरौनाइ जरओनाइ- जरएनाइ/
जरेनाइ
१२३. होइत
१२४.
गरबेलन्हि/ गरबेलनि गरबौलन्हि/ गरबौलनि
१२५.
चिखैत- (to test)चिखइत
१२६. करइयो (willing to do) करैयो
१२७. जेकरा- जकरा
१२८. तकरा- तेकरा
१२९.
बिदेसर स्थानेमे/ बिदेसरे स्थानमे
१३०. करबयलहुँ/ करबएलहुँ/ करबेलहुँ करबेलौं
१३१.
हारिक (उच्चारण हाइरक)
१३२. ओजन वजन आफसोच/ अफसोस कागत/ कागच/ कागज
१३३. आधे भाग/ आध-भागे
१३४. पिचा / पिचाय/पिचाए
१३५. नञ/ ने
१३६. बच्चा नञ
(ने) पिचा जाय
१३७. तखन ने (नञ) कहैत अछि। कहै/ सुनै/ देखै छल मुदा कहैत-कहैत/ सुनैत-सुनैत/ देखैत-देखैत
१३८.
कतेक गोटे/ कताक गोटे
१३९. कमाइ-धमाइ/ कमाई- धमाई
१४०
. लग ल’ग
१४१. खेलाइ (for playing)
१४२.
छथिन्ह/ छथिन
१४३.
होइत होइ
१४४. क्यो कियो / केओ
१४५.
केश (hair)
१४६.
केस (court-case)
१४७
. बननाइ/ बननाय/ बननाए
१४८. जरेनाइ
१४९. कुरसी कुर्सी
१५०. चरचा चर्चा
१५१. कर्म करम
१५२. डुबाबए/ डुबाबै/ डुमाबै डुमाबय/ डुमाबए
१५३. एखुनका/
अखुनका
१५४. लए/ लिअए (वाक्यक अंतिम शब्द)- लऽ
१५५. कएलक/
केलक
१५६. गरमी गर्मी
१५७
. वरदी वर्दी
१५८. सुना गेलाह सुना’/सुनाऽ
१५९. एनाइ-गेनाइ
१६०.
तेना ने घेरलन्हि/ तेना ने घेरलनि
१६१. नञि / नै
१६२.
डरो ड’रो
१६३. कतहु/ कतौ कहीं
१६४. उमरिगर-उमेरगर उमरगर
१६५. भरिगर
१६६. धोल/धोअल धोएल
१६७. गप/गप्प
१६८.
के के’
१६९. दरबज्जा/ दरबजा
१७०. ठाम
१७१.
धरि तक
१७२.
घूरि लौटि
१७३. थोरबेक
१७४. बड्ड
१७५. तोँ/ तूँ
१७६. तोँहि( पद्यमे ग्राह्य)
१७७. तोँही / तोँहि
१७८.
करबाइए करबाइये
१७९. एकेटा
१८०. करितथि /करतथि
१८१.
पहुँचि/ पहुँच
१८२. राखलन्हि रखलन्हि/ रखलनि
१८३.
लगलन्हि/ लगलनि लागलन्हि
१८४.
सुनि (उच्चारण सुइन)
१८५. अछि (उच्चारण अइछ)
१८६. एलथि गेलथि
१८७. बितओने/ बितौने/
बितेने
१८८. करबओलन्हि/ करबौलनि/
करेलखिन्ह/ करेलखिन
१८९. करएलन्हि/ करेलनि
१९०.
आकि/ कि
१९१. पहुँचि/
पहुँच
१९२. बत्ती जराय/ जराए जरा (आगि लगा)
१९३.
से से’
१९४.
हाँ मे हाँ (हाँमे हाँ विभक्त्तिमे हटा कए)
१९५. फेल फैल
१९६. फइल(spacious) फैल
१९७. होयतन्हि/ होएतन्हि/ होएतनि/हेतनि/ हेतन्हि
१९८. हाथ मटिआएब/ हाथ मटियाबय/हाथ मटियाएब
१९९. फेका फेंका
२००. देखाए देखा
२०१. देखाबए
२०२. सत्तरि सत्तर
२०३.
साहेब साहब
२०४.गेलैन्ह/ गेलन्हि/ गेलनि
२०५. हेबाक/ होएबाक
२०६.केलो/ कएलहुँ/केलौं/ केलुँ
२०७. किछु न किछु/
किछु ने किछु
२०८.घुमेलहुँ/ घुमओलहुँ/ घुमेलौं
२०९. एलाक/ अएलाक
२१०. अः/ अह
२११.लय/
लए (अर्थ-परिवर्त्तन) २१२.कनीक/ कनेक
२१३.सबहक/ सभक
२१४.मिलाऽ/ मिला
२१५.कऽ/ क
२१६.जाऽ/
जा
२१७.आऽ/ आ
२१८.भऽ /भ’ (’ फॉन्टक कमीक द्योतक)
२१९.निअम/ नियम
२२०
.हेक्टेअर/ हेक्टेयर
२२१.पहिल अक्षर ढ/ बादक/ बीचक ढ़
२२२.तहिं/तहिँ/ तञि/ तैं
२२३.कहिं/ कहीं
२२४.तँइ/
तैं / तइँ
२२५.नँइ/ नइँ/ नञि/ नहि/नै
२२६.है/ हए / एलीहेँ/
२२७.छञि/ छै/ छैक /छइ
२२८.दृष्टिएँ/ दृष्टियेँ
२२९.आ (come)/ आऽ(conjunction)
२३०.
आ (conjunction)/ आऽ(come)
२३१.कुनो/ कोनो, कोना/केना
२३२.गेलैन्ह-गेलन्हि-गेलनि
२३३.हेबाक- होएबाक
२३४.केलौँ- कएलौँ-कएलहुँ/केलौं
२३५.किछु न किछ- किछु ने किछु
२३६.केहेन- केहन
२३७.आऽ (come)-आ (conjunction-and)/आ। आब'-आब' /आबह-आबह
२३८. हएत-हैत
२३९.घुमेलहुँ-घुमएलहुँ- घुमेलाें
२४०.एलाक- अएलाक
२४१.होनि- होइन/ होन्हि/
२४२.ओ-राम ओ श्यामक बीच(conjunction), ओऽ कहलक (he said)/ओ
२४३.की हए/ कोसी अएली हए/ की है। की हइ
२४४.दृष्टिएँ/ दृष्टियेँ
२४५
.शामिल/ सामेल
२४६.तैँ / तँए/ तञि/ तहिं
२४७.जौं
/ ज्योँ/ जँ/
२४८.सभ/ सब
२४९.सभक/ सबहक
२५०.कहिं/ कहीं
२५१.कुनो/ कोनो/ कोनहुँ/
२५२.फारकती भऽ गेल/ भए गेल/ भय गेल
२५३.कोना/ केना/ कन्ना/कना
२५४.अः/ अह
२५५.जनै/ जनञ
२५६.गेलनि/
गेलाह (अर्थ परिवर्तन)
२५७.केलन्हि/ कएलन्हि/ केलनि/
२५८.लय/ लए/ लएह (अर्थ परिवर्तन)
२५९.कनीक/ कनेक/कनी-मनी
२६०.पठेलन्हि पठेलनि/ पठेलइन/ पपठओलन्हि/ पठबौलनि/
२६१.निअम/ नियम
२६२.हेक्टेअर/ हेक्टेयर
२६३.पहिल अक्षर रहने ढ/ बीचमे रहने ढ
२६४.आकारान्तमे बिकारीक प्रयोग उचित नै/ अपोस्ट्रोफीक प्रयोग फान्टक तकनीकी न्यूनताक परिचायक ओकर बदला अवग्रह (बिकारी) क प्रयोग उचित
२६५.केर (पद्यमे ग्राह्य) / -क/ कऽ/ के
२६६.छैन्हि- छन्हि
२६७.लगैए/ लगैये
२६८.होएत/ हएत
२६९.जाएत/ जएत/
२७०.आएत/ अएत/ आओत
२७१
.खाएत/ खएत/ खैत
२७२.पिअएबाक/ पिएबाक/पियेबाक
२७३.शुरु/ शुरुह
२७४.शुरुहे/ शुरुए
२७५.अएताह/अओताह/ एताह/ औताह
२७६.जाहि/ जाइ/ जइ/ जै/
२७७.जाइत/ जैतए/ जइतए
२७८.आएल/ अएल
२७९.कैक/ कएक
२८०.आयल/ अएल/ आएल
२८१. जाए/ जअए/ जए (लालति जाए लगलीह।)
२८२. नुकएल/ नुकाएल
२८३. कठुआएल/ कठुअएल
२८४. ताहि/ तै/ तइ
२८५. गायब/ गाएब/ गएब
२८६. सकै/ सकए/ सकय
२८७.सेरा/सरा/ सराए (भात सरा गेल)
२८८.कहैत रही/देखैत रही/ कहैत छलौं/ कहै छलौं- अहिना चलैत/ पढैत
(पढै-पढैत अर्थ कखनो काल परिवर्तित) - आर बुझै/ बुझैत (बुझै/ बुझै छी, मुदा बुझैत-बुझैत)/ सकैत/ सकै। करैत/ करै। दै/ दैत। छैक/ छै। बचलै/ बचलैक। रखबा/ रखबाक । बिनु/ बिन। रातिक/ रातुक बुझै आ बुझैत केर अपन-अपन जगहपर प्रयोग समीचीन अछि। बुझैत-बुझैत आब बुझलिऐ। हमहूँ बुझै छी।
२८९. दुआरे/ द्वारे
२९०.भेटि/ भेट/ भेँट
२९१.
खन/ खीन/ खुना (भोर खन/ भोर खीन)
२९२.तक/ धरि
२९३.गऽ/ गै (meaning different-जनबै गऽ)
२९४.सऽ/ सँ (मुदा दऽ, लऽ)
२९५.त्त्व,(तीन अक्षरक मेल बदला पुनरुक्तिक एक आ एकटा दोसरक उपयोग) आदिक बदला त्व आदि। महत्त्व/ महत्व/ कर्ता/ कर्त्ता आदिमे त्त संयुक्तक कोनो आवश्यकता मैथिलीमे नै अछि। वक्तव्य
२९६.बेसी/ बेशी
२९७.बाला/वाला बला/ वला (रहैबला)
२९८
.वाली/ (बदलैवाली)
२९९.वार्त्ता/ वार्ता
३००. अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय/ अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय
३०१. लेमए/ लेबए
३०२.लमछुरका, नमछुरका
३०२.लागै/ लगै (
भेटैत/ भेटै)
३०३.लागल/ लगल
३०४.हबा/ हवा
३०५.राखलक/ रखलक
३०६.आ (come)/ आ (and)
३०७. पश्चाताप/ पश्चात्ताप
३०८. ऽ केर व्यवहार शब्दक अन्तमे मात्र, यथासंभव बीचमे नै।
३०९.कहैत/ कहै
३१०.
रहए (छल)/ रहै (छलै) (meaning different)
३११.तागति/ ताकति
३१२.खराप/ खराब
३१३.बोइन/ बोनि/ बोइनि
३१४.जाठि/ जाइठ
३१५.कागज/ कागच/ कागत
३१६.गिरै (meaning different- swallow)/ गिरए (खसए)
३१७.राष्ट्रिय/ राष्ट्रीय
DATE-LIST (year- 2013-14)
(१४२१ फसली साल)
Marriage Days:
Nov.2013- 18, 20, 24, 25, 28, 29
Dec.2013- 1, 4, 6, 8, 12, 13
January 2014- 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 31.
Feb.2014- 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 17, 19, 24, 26, 27.
March 2014- 2, 3, 5, 7, 9.
April 2014- 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24.
May 2014- 1, 2, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30.
June 2014- 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 18, 22, 25.
July 2014- 2, 3, 4, 6, 7.
Upanayana Days:
February 2014- 2, 4, 9, 10.
March 2014- 3, 5, 11, 12.
April 2014- 4, 9, 10.
June 2014- 2, 8, 9.
Dviragaman Din:
November 2013- 18, 21, 22.
December 2013- 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13.
February 2014- 16, 17, 19, 20.
March 2014- 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12.
April 2014- 16, 17, 18, 20.
May 2014- 1, 2, 9, 11, 12.
Mundan Din:
November 2013- 20, 22.
December 2013- 9, 12, 13.
January 2014- 16, 17.
February 2014- 6, 10, 19, 20.
March 2014- 5, 12.
April 2014- 16.
May 2014- 12, 30.
June 2014- 2, 9, 30.